Richard Pearce, Rosalynn Ord, Elizabeth Streat, Inbarani Naidoo, Ghyslain Mombo-Ngoma, Diadier Diallo, Caroline A. Lynch, Samuel Dunyo, S. Patrick Kachur, Fanta Njie, Karen I. Barnes, John B. Rwakimari, Cally Roper, Marie-Solange Evehe, Asefaw Getachew, Ishraga E. A-Elbasit, Seyoum Dejene, Alexandre Matondo, Walter O. Inojosa, Daniel Chandramohan, Seth Owusu-Agyei, Hayder A. Giha, Petrina Uusiku, Olufunmilayo Y. Elegba, Sian E. Clarke, Todd D. Swarthout, Jean-Paul Guthmann, Brian L. Sharp, El-Hadj Bâ, Badara Cisse, Stark Katokele, Martin P. Grobusch, Allen L Malisa, Maryline Bonnet, Margaret Kweku, Chris O. Agboghoroma, Ingrid van den Broek, Moonga Hawela, Pascalina Chanda, Hirva Pota, Wilfred Fon Mbacham, Infectious diseases, Other departments, Division of Clinical Pharmacology, and Faculty of Health Sciences
Cally Roper and colleagues analyze the distribution of sulfadoxine resistance mutations and flanking microsatellite loci to trace the emergence and dispersal of drug-resistant Plasmodium falciparum malaria in Africa., Background Although the molecular basis of resistance to a number of common antimalarial drugs is well known, a geographic description of the emergence and dispersal of resistance mutations across Africa has not been attempted. To that end we have characterised the evolutionary origins of antifolate resistance mutations in the dihydropteroate synthase (dhps) gene and mapped their contemporary distribution. Methods and Findings We used microsatellite polymorphism flanking the dhps gene to determine which resistance alleles shared common ancestry and found five major lineages each of which had a unique geographical distribution. The extent to which allelic lineages were shared among 20 African Plasmodium falciparum populations revealed five major geographical groupings. Resistance lineages were common to all sites within these regions. The most marked differentiation was between east and west African P. falciparum, in which resistance alleles were not only of different ancestry but also carried different resistance mutations. Conclusions Resistant dhps has emerged independently in multiple sites in Africa during the past 10–20 years. Our data show the molecular basis of resistance differs between east and west Africa, which is likely to translate into differing antifolate sensitivity. We have also demonstrated that the dispersal patterns of resistance lineages give unique insights into recent parasite migration patterns., Editors' Summary Background Plasmodium falciparum, a mosquito-borne parasite that causes malaria, kills nearly one million people every year, mostly in sub-Saharan Africa. People become infected with P. falciparum when they are bitten by a mosquito that has acquired the parasite in a blood meal taken from an infected person. P. falciparum malaria, which is characterized by recurring fevers and chills, anemia (loss of red blood cells), and damage to vital organs, can be fatal within hours of symptom onset if untreated. Until recently, treatment in Africa relied on chloroquine and sulfadoxine–pyrimethamine. Unfortunately, parasites resistant to both these antimalarial drugs is now widespread. Consequently, the World Health Organization currently recommends artemisinin combination therapy for the treatment of P. falciparum malaria in Africa and other places where drug-resistant malaria is common. In this therapy, artemisinin derivatives (new fast-acting antimalarial agents) are used in combination with another antimalarial to reduce the chances of P. falciparum becoming resistant to either drug. Why Was This Study Done? P. falciparum becomes resistant to antimalarial drugs by acquiring “resistance mutations,” genetic changes that prevent these drugs from killing the parasite. A mutation in the gene encoding a protein called the chloroquine resistance transporter causes resistance to chloroquine, a specific group of mutations in the dihydrofolate reductase gene causes resistance to pyrimethamine, and several mutations in dhps, the gene that encodes dihydropteroate synthase, are associated with resistance to sulfadoxine. Scientists have discovered that the mutations causing chloroquine and pyrimethamine resistance originated in Asia and spread into Africa (probably multiple times) in the late 1970s and mid-1980s, respectively. These Asian-derived mutations are now common throughout Africa and, consequently, it is not possible to determine how they spread across the continent. Information of this sort would, however, help experts design effective measures to control the spread of drug-resistant P. falciparum. Because the mutations in dhps that cause sulfadoxine resistance only began to emerge in the mid-1990s, they haven't spread evenly across Africa yet. In this study, therefore, the researchers use genetic methods to characterize the geographical origins and contemporary distribution of dhps resistance mutations in Africa. What Did the Researchers Do and Find? The researchers analyzed dhps mutations in P. falciparum DNA from blood samples collected from patients with malaria in various African countries and searched the scientific literature for other similar studies. Together, these data show that five major variant dhps sequences (three of which contain mutations that confer various degrees of resistance to sulphadoxine in laboratory tests) are currently present in Africa, each with a unique geographical distribution. In particular, the data show that P. falciparum parasites in east and west Africa carry different resistance mutations. Next, the researchers looked for microsatellite variants in the DNA flanking the dhps gene. Microsatellites are DNA regions that contain short, repeated sequences of nucleotides. Because the number of repeats can vary and because microsatellites are inherited together with nearby genes, the ancestry of various resistance mutations can be worked out by examining the microsatellites flanking different mutant dhps genes. This analysis revealed five regional clusters in which the same resistance lineage was present at all the sites examined within the region and also showed that the resistance mutations in east and west Africa have a different ancestry. What Do These Findings Mean? These findings show that sulfadoxine-resistant P. falciparum has recently emerged independently at multiple sites in Africa and that the molecular basis for sulfadoxine resistance is different in east and west Africa. This latter result may have clinical implications because it suggests that the effectiveness of sulfadoxine as an antimalarial drug may vary across the continent. Finally, although many more samples need to be analyzed to build a complete picture of the spread of antimalarial resistance across Africa, these findings suggest that economic and transport infrastructures may have played a role in governing recent parasite dispersal across this continent by affecting human migration. Thus, coordinated malaria control campaigns across socioeconomically linked areas in Africa may reduce the African malaria burden more effectively than campaigns that are confined to national territories. Additional Information Please access these Web sites via the online version of this summary at http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1000055. This study is further discussed in a PLoS Medicine Perspective by Tim Anderson The MedlinePlus encyclopedia contains a page on malaria (in English and Spanish) Information is available from the World Health Organization on malaria (in several languages) and on drug-resistant malaria The US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention provide information on malaria (in English and Spanish) Information is available from the Roll Back Malaria Partnership on its approach to the global control of malaria, and on malaria control efforts in specific parts of the world The WorldWide Antimalarial Resistance Network is creating an international database about antimalarial drug resistance