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Context: The effects of leptin, an adipocyte-derived hormone that signals overall energy sufficiency, can only be studied in leptin-deficient conditions. In patients with lipodystrophy, a rare disease and unique model of leptin deficiency, treatment with recombinant leptin (metreleptin) improves glycemia and decreases energy expenditure. We hypothesized that these improvements might be mediated by reduced gluconeogenesis (GNG), an energy-requiring process., Objective: To determine the effects of metreleptin on GNG and GNG substrates., Methods: This was a single-arm prospective study of metreleptin administration in 15 patients with lipodystrophy, 9 of whom had data on GNG (NIH, 2013-2018). We analyzed total GNG, insulin-mediated suppression of GNG, glycerol, palmitate, alanine, lactate, peripheral and hepatic insulin sensitivity, and markers of glycemia (eg, HbA1c, glucose, fasting insulin)., Results: Metreleptin administration decreased basal GNG, increased insulin-mediated suppression of GNG, and improved insulin sensitivity and markers of glycemic control. Metreleptin reduced carbon sources for GNG, including plasma alanine and lactate, and rate of appearance (Ra) of glycerol, and decreased Ra of palmitate, a driver of GNG. Glycerol and palmitate Ra correlated with GNG prior to but not during metreleptin administration. Alanine strongly correlated with GNG both before and during metreleptin administration., Conclusions: Metreleptin treatment in patients with lipodystrophy reduced GNG likely through decreased availability of carbon sources for gluconeogenesis, such as alanine, lactate, and glycerol. Associations between alanine and GNG persisted after metreleptin treatment while correlations with glycerol and palmitate Ra did not persist, suggesting reduced importance of lipolysis as a driver of GNG in the leptin-replete state., (Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the Endocrine Society 2023.)

Background: Partial lipodystrophy (PL) syndromes involve deficiency of adipose tissue, causing severe insulin resistance and hypertriglyceridemia. Apolipoprotein C-III (apoC-III) is elevated in PL and is thought to contribute to hypertriglyceridemia by inhibiting lipoprotein lipase (LPL)., Objective: We hypothesized that volanesorsen, an antisense oligonucleotide to apoC-III, would decrease apoC-III, increase LPL activity, and lower triglycerides in PL., Methods: Five adults with PL enrolled in a 16-week placebo-controlled, randomized, double blind study of volanesorsen, 300 mg weekly, followed by 1-year open label extension., Results: Within-subject effects of volanesorsen before and after 16 weeks of active drug are reported due to small sample size. From week 0 to 16, apoC-III decreased from median (25 th , 75 th %ile) 380 (246, 600) to 75 (26, 232) ng/mL, and triglycerides decreased from 503 (330, 1040) to 116 (86, 355) mg/dL while activation of LPL by subjects' serum increased from 21 (20, 25) to 36 (29, 42) nEq/mL*min. Although, A1c did not change, peripheral and hepatic insulin sensitivity (glucose disposal and suppression of glucose production during hyperinsulinemic clamp) increased and palmitate turnover decreased. After 32-52 weeks of volanesorsen, liver fat decreased. Common adverse events included injection site reactions and decreased platelets., Conclusions: In PL, volanesorsen decreased apoC-III and triglycerides, in part through an LPL dependent mechanism, and may improve insulin resistance and hepatic steatosis., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest In-kind research support for this study (including study drug, analysis of pharmacokinetics and lipids, database management, patient remuneration and visiting nurse support) were provided by Ionis Pharmaceuticals and Akcea Therapeutics. All authors have declared that no conflict of interest exists., (Copyright © 2022. Published by Elsevier Inc.)

Objective: Severe insulin resistance syndromes, such as lipodystrophy, lead to diabetes, which is challenging to control. This study explored the safety and efficacy of sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitors (SGLT2is) in a series of 12 patients with severe insulin resistance due to partial lipodystrophy., Methods: A retrospective chart review of the safety (N = 22) and efficacy (N = 12) of SGLT2is in patients with partial lipodystrophy was conducted at our institution. The efficacy outcomes included hemoglobin A1C level, insulin dose, fasting plasma glucose level, C-peptide level, lipid profile, 24-hour urinary glucose excretion, estimated glomerular filtration rate, and blood pressure before and after 12 months of SGLT2i treatment., Results: The hemoglobin A1C level decreased after SGLT2i treatment (at baseline: 9.2% ± 2.0% [77.0 ± 21.9 mmol/mol]; after 12 months: 8.4% ± 1.8% [68.0 ± 19.7 mmol/mol]; P = .028). Significant reductions were also noted in systolic (P = .011) and diastolic blood pressure (P = .013). There was a trend toward a decreased C-peptide level (P = .071). The fasting plasma glucose level, lipid level, and estimated glomerular filtration rate remained unchanged. The adverse effects included extremity pain, hypoglycemia, diabetic ketoacidosis (in a patient who was nonadherent to insulin), pancreatitis (in a patient with prior pancreatitis), and fungal infections., Conclusion: SGLT2is reduced the hemoglobin A1C level in patients with partial lipodystrophy, with a similar safety profile compared with that in patients with type 2 diabetes. After individual consideration of the risks and benefits of SGLT2is, these may be considered a part of the treatment armamentarium for these rare forms of diabetes, but larger trials are needed to confirm these findings., (Published by Elsevier Inc.)

Context: Lipodystrophy syndromes are rare disorders of deficient adipose tissue, low leptin, and severe metabolic disease, affecting all adipose depots (generalized lipodystrophy, GLD) or only some (partial lipodystrophy, PLD). Left ventricular (LV) hypertrophy is common (especially in GLD); mechanisms may include hyperglycemia, dyslipidemia, or hyperinsulinemia., Objective: Determine effects of recombinant leptin (metreleptin) on cardiac structure and function in lipodystrophy., Methods: Open-label treatment study of 38 subjects (18 GLD, 20 PLD) at the National Institutes of Health before and after 1 (N = 27), and 3 to 5 years (N = 23) of metreleptin. Outcomes were echocardiograms, blood pressure (BP), triglycerides, A1c, and homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance., Results: In GLD, metreleptin lowered triglycerides (median [interquartile range] 740 [403-1239], 138 [88-196], 211 [136-558] mg/dL at baseline, 1 year, 3-5 years, P < .0001), A1c (9.5 ± 3.0, 6.5 ± 1.6, 6.5 ± 1.9%, P < .001), and HOMA-IR (34.1 [15.2-43.5], 8.7 [2.4-16.0], 8.9 [2.1-16.4], P < .001). Only HOMA-IR improved in PLD (P < .01). Systolic BP decreased in GLD but not PLD. Metreleptin improved cardiac parameters in patients with GLD, including reduced posterior wall thickness (9.8 ± 1.7, 9.1 ± 1.3, 8.3 ± 1.7 mm, P < .01), and LV mass (140.7 ± 45.9, 128.7 ± 37.9, 110.9 ± 29.1 g, P < .01), and increased septal e' velocity (8.6 ± 1.7, 10.0 ± 2.1, 10.7 ± 2.4 cm/s, P < .01). Changes remained significant after adjustment for BP. In GLD, multivariate models suggested that reduced posterior wall thickness and LV mass index correlated with reduced triglycerides and increased septal e' velocity correlated with reduced A1c. No changes in echocardiographic parameters were seen in PLD., Conclusion: Metreleptin attenuated cardiac hypertrophy and improved septal e' velocity in GLD, which may be mediated by reduced lipotoxicity and glucose toxicity. The applicability of these findings to leptin-sufficient populations remains to be determined., (Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the Endocrine Society 2021.)

De novo lipogenesis (DNL) plays a role in the development of hepatic steatosis. In humans with lipodystrophy, reduced adipose tissue causes lower plasma leptin, insulin resistance, dyslipidemia, and ectopic triglyceride (TG) accumulation. We hypothesized that recombinant leptin (metreleptin) for 6 months in 11 patients with lipodystrophy would reduce DNL by decreasing insulin resistance and glycemia, thus reducing circulating TG and hepatic TG. The percentage of TG in TG-rich lipoprotein particle (TRLP-TG) derived from DNL (%DNL) was measured by deuterium incorporation from body water into palmitate. At baseline, DNL was elevated, similar to levels previously shown in obesity-associated nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). After metreleptin, DNL decreased into the normal range. Similarly, absolute DNL (TRLP-TG × %DNL) decreased by 88% to near-normal levels. Metreleptin improved peripheral insulin sensitivity (hyperinsulinemic-euglycemic clamp) and lowered hemoglobin A1c and hepatic TG. Both before and after metreleptin, DNL positively correlated with insulin resistance, insulin doses, and hepatic TG, supporting the hypothesis that hyperinsulinemia stimulates DNL and that elevated DNL is integral to the pathogenesis of lipodystrophy-associated NAFLD. These data suggest that leptin-mediated improvement in insulin sensitivity increases clearance of blood glucose by peripheral tissues, reduces hepatic carbohydrate flux, and lowers insulinemia, resulting in DNL reductions and improvements in hepatic steatosis and dyslipidemia.

BACKGROUNDPostreceptor insulin resistance (IR) is associated with hyperglycemia and hepatic steatosis. However, receptor-level IR (e.g., insulin receptor pathogenic variants, INSR) causes hyperglycemia without steatosis. We examined 4 pathologic conditions of IR in humans to examine pathways controlling lipid metabolism and gluconeogenesis.METHODSCross-sectional study of severe receptor IR (INSR, n = 7) versus postreceptor IR that was severe (lipodystrophy, n = 14), moderate (type 2 diabetes, n = 9), or mild (obesity, n = 8). Lipolysis (glycerol turnover), hepatic glucose production (HGP), gluconeogenesis (deuterium incorporation from body water into glucose), hepatic triglyceride (magnetic resonance spectroscopy), and hepatic fat oxidation (plasma β-hydroxybutyrate) were measured.RESULTSLipolysis was 2- to 3-fold higher in INSR versus all other groups, and HGP was 2-fold higher in INSR and lipodystrophy versus type 2 diabetes and obesity (P < 0.001), suggesting severe adipose and hepatic IR. INSR subjects had a higher contribution of gluconeogenesis to HGP, approximately 77%, versus 52% to 59% in other groups (P = 0.0001). Despite high lipolysis, INSR subjects had low hepatic triglycerides (0.5% [interquartile range 0.1%-0.5%]), in contrast to lipodystrophy (10.6% [interquartile range 2.8%-17.1%], P < 0.0001). β-hydroxybutyrate was 2- to 7-fold higher in INSR versus all other groups (P < 0.0001), consistent with higher hepatic fat oxidation.CONCLUSIONThese data support a key pathogenic role of adipose tissue IR to increase glycerol and FFA availability to the liver in both receptor and postreceptor IR. However, the fate of FFA diverges in these populations. In receptor-level IR, FFA oxidation drives gluconeogenesis rather than being reesterified to triglyceride. In contrast, in postreceptor IR, FFA contributes to both gluconeogenesis and hepatic steatosis.TRIAL REGISTRATIONClinicalTrials.gov NCT01778556, NCT00001987, and NCT02457897.FUNDINGNational Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, US Department of Agriculture/Agricultural Research Service 58-3092-5-001.

Context: Patients with mutations of the insulin receptor gene (INSR) have extreme insulin resistance and are at risk for early morbidity and mortality from diabetes complications. A case report suggested that thyroid hormone could improve glycemia in INSR mutation in part by increasing brown adipose tissue (BAT) activity and volume., Objective: To determine if thyroid hormone increases tissue glucose uptake and improves hyperglycemia in INSR mutation., Design: Single-arm, open-label study of liothyronine., Setting: National Institutes of Health., Participants: Patients with homozygous (n = 5) or heterozygous (n = 2) INSR mutation., Intervention: Liothyronine every 8 hours for 2 weeks (n = 7); additional 6 months' treatment in those with hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) > 7% (n = 4)., Outcomes: Whole-body glucose uptake by isotopic tracers; tissue glucose uptake in muscle, white adipose tissue (WAT) and BAT by dynamic [18F] fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography/computed tomography; HbA1c., Results: There was no change in whole-body, muscle, or WAT glucose uptake from baseline to 2 weeks of liothyronine. After 6 months, there was no change in HbA1c (8.3 ± 1.2 vs 9.1 ± 3.0%, P = 0.27), but there was increased whole-body glucose disposal (22.8 ± 4.9 vs 30.1 ± 10.0 µmol/kg lean body mass/min, P = 0.02), and muscle (0.7 ± 0.1 vs 2.0 ± 0.2 µmol/min/100 mL, P < 0.0001) and WAT glucose uptake (1.2 ± 0.2 vs 2.2 ± 0.3 µmol/min/100 mL, P < 0.0001). BAT glucose uptake could not be quantified because of small volume. There were no signs or symptoms of hyperthyroidism., Conclusion: Liothyronine administered at well-tolerated doses did not improve HbA1c. However, the observed increases in muscle and WAT glucose uptake support the proposed mechanism that liothyronine increases tissue glucose uptake. More selective agents may be effective at increasing tissue glucose uptake without thyroid hormone-related systemic toxicity.Clinical Trial Registration Number: NCT02457897; https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT02457897., (Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the Endocrine Society 2019.)

Context: Insulin and leptin may increase growth and proliferation of thyroid cells, underlying an association between type 2 diabetes and papillary thyroid cancer (PTC). Patients with extreme insulin resistance due to lipodystrophy or insulin receptor mutations (INSR) are treated with high-dose insulin and recombinant leptin (metreleptin), which may increase the risk of thyroid neoplasia., Objective: The aim of this study was to analyze thyroid structural abnormalities in patients with lipodystrophy and INSR mutations and to assess whether insulin, IGF-1, and metreleptin therapy contribute to the thyroid growth and neoplasia in this population., Design: Thyroid ultrasound characteristics were analyzed in 81 patients with lipodystrophy and 11 with INSR (5 homozygous; 6 heterozygous). Sixty patients were taking metreleptin., Results: The prevalence of thyroid nodules in children with extreme insulin resistance (5 of 30, 16.7%) was significantly higher than published prevalence for children (64 of 3202; 2%), with no difference between lipodystrophy and INSR. Body surface area-adjusted thyroid volume was larger in INSR homozygotes vs heterozygotes or lipodystrophy (10.4 ± 5.1, 3.9 ± 1.5, and 6.2 ± 3.4 cm2, respectively. Three patients with lipodystrophy and one INSR heterozygote had PTC. There were no differences in thyroid ultrasound features in patients treated vs not treated with metreleptin., Conclusion: Children with extreme insulin resistance had a high prevalence of thyroid nodules, which were not associated with metreleptin treatment. Patients with homozygous INSR mutation had thyromegaly, which may be a novel phenotypic feature of this disease. Further studies are needed to determine the etiology of thyroid abnormalities in patients with extreme insulin resistance., (Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the Endocrine Society 2019.)

Background: Recombinant leptin (metreleptin) ameliorates hyperphagia and metabolic abnormalities in leptin-deficient humans with lipodystrophy. We aimed to determine whether metreleptin improves glucose and lipid metabolism in humans when food intake is held constant., Methods: Patients with lipodystrophy were hospitalized for 19 days, with food intake held constant by a controlled diet in an inpatient metabolic ward. In a nonrandomized, crossover design, patients previously treated with metreleptin (n = 8) were continued on metreleptin for 5 days and then taken off metreleptin for the next 14 days (withdrawal cohort). This order was reversed in metreleptin-naive patients (n = 14), who were reevaluated after 6 months of metreleptin treatment on an ad libitum diet (initiation cohort). Outcome measurements included insulin sensitivity by hyperinsulinemic-euglycemic clamp, fasting glucose and triglyceride levels, lipolysis measured using isotopic tracers, and liver fat by magnetic resonance spectroscopy., Results: With food intake constant, peripheral insulin sensitivity decreased by 41% after stopping metreleptin for 14 days (withdrawal cohort) and increased by 32% after treatment with metreleptin for 14 days (initiation cohort). In the initiation cohort only, metreleptin decreased fasting glucose by 11% and triglycerides by 41% and increased hepatic insulin sensitivity. Liver fat decreased from 21.8% to 18.7%. In the initiation cohort, changes in lipolysis were not independent of food intake, but after 6 months of metreleptin treatment on an ad libitum diet, lipolysis decreased by 30% (palmitate turnover) to 35% (glycerol turnover)., Conclusion: Using lipodystrophy as a human model of leptin deficiency and replacement, we show that metreleptin improves insulin sensitivity and decreases hepatic and circulating triglycerides and that these improvements are independent of its effects on food intake., Trial Registration: ClinicalTrials.gov NCT01778556FUNDING. This research was supported by the intramural research program of the NIDDK.