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Aims: Patient-reported outcomes (PROs) are increasingly important for assessing patient satisfaction with diabetes technologies. PROs must be assessed with validated questionnaires in clinical practice and research studies. Our aim was to translate and validate the Italian version of the continuous glucose monitoring (CGM) Satisfaction (CGM-SAT) scale questionnaire. Methods: Questionnaire validation followed MAPI Research Trust guidelines and included forward translation, reconciliation, backward translation, and cognitive debriefing. Results: The final version of the questionnaire was administered to 210 patients with type 1 diabetes (T1D) and 232 parents. The completion rate was excellent, with almost 100% of items answered. The overall Cronbach’s coefficient was 0.71 and 0.85 for young people (patients) and parents indicating moderate and good internal consistency, respectively. Parent–young people agreement was 0.404 (95% confidence interval: 0.391–0.417), indicating moderate agreement between the two assessments. Factor analysis identified that factors assessing the “benefits” and “hassles” of CGM accounted for 33.9% and 12.9% of score variance in young people and 29.6% and 19.8% in parents, respectively. Discussion: We present the successful Italian translation and validation of the CGM-SAT scale questionnaire, which will be useful for assessing satisfaction with Italian T1D patients using CGM systems.

Aim To analyze sleep quality and its relationships with clinical and biochemical features in a large cohort of adults with autoimmune diabetes. Methods We administered to 553 patients with autoimmune diabetes the questionnaires: Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI), diabetes distress scale, diabetes-related quality of life and diabetes treatment satisfaction questionnaire. We excluded patients with missing HbA1c ± 4 months from PSQI administration or incorrect PSQI compilation (n = 110). Results Altered sleep quality was recorded in 142/443 subjects (32%), insufficient total sleep time in 177/443 (40%). The altered sleep quality group had higher HbA1c (median 56 mmol/mol [interquartile range-IQR 49–62] vs 59 [IQR 52–68]; P P 53 mmol/mol (74.6% vs 62.8%; P = 0.014). Diabetes duration (P = 0.63), type of insulin delivery (P = 0.48) and glucose monitoring (P = 0.35) were uninfluential. Patients with altered sleep quality showed higher prevalence of autoimmune (42 vs 28%; P = 0.005) and mental diseases (12 vs 4%; P = 0.002); there were greater emotional distress, and lower quality of life and treatment satisfaction (P Conclusion One-third of the patients with autoimmune diabetes showed altered sleep quality, which associates with worse glycemic control, and autoimmune and mental disorders, with sex-specific differences.

Background Glucose management indicator (GMI) is a useful metric for the clinical management of diabetic patients using continuous glucose monitoring (CGM). In adults, a marked discordance between HbA1c and GMI has been reported. To date, no studies have evaluated this discordance in children/adolescents with type 1 diabetes (T1D). Methods HbA1c and real-life CGM data of the 12 weeks preceding HbA1c measurement were collected from 805 children/adolescents. The absolute difference between HbA1c and GMI was calculated for both the 12-week and 4-week periods preceding HbA1c measurement and the proportion of discordant patients was defined according to specific thresholds in the entire study population and in subjects stratified by type of CGM, insulin therapy, gender, age and puberty. Regression analyses were performed with HbA1c-GMI discordance as dependent variable and patients' characteristics as independent ones. A new GMI equation for children and adolescent was derived from the linear regression analysis between mean glucose and HbA1c. Results HbA1c-GMI discordance calculated on the 12-week period was = 0.5 and >= 1.0 in 24.8, 33.9 and 9.2% of the subjects, respectively. No significant differences in the proportion of discordant patients were found comparing patients stratified by type of CGM, insulin therapy, gender, age and puberty. GMI-HbA1c discordance was not significantly explained by age, gender, BMI, type of CGM, insulin therapy, hemoglobin, anemia and autoimmune diseases (R-2 = 0.012, p = 0.409). HbA1c-GMI discordance calculated on the 4-week period was comparable. GMI (%) equation derived for this cohort was: 3.74 + 0.022x (mean glucose in mg/dl). Conclusions GMI could be meaningfully discordant respect to HbA1c in more than a third of children/adolescents with T1D. This discrepancy should be taken into careful consideration when the two indices are directly compared in daily clinical practice.

Context Nationwide data on children diagnosed with craniopharyngioma (CP) are not available in Italy. Objective This work aimed to identify patients’ characteristics, type of surgical approach, complications and recurrences, number of pituitary deficits, and number of patients starting growth hormone (GH) treatment. Methods A retrospective multicenter collection took place of 145 patients aged 0 to 18 years who underwent surgery for CP between 2000 and 2018, and followed up in 17 Italian centers of pediatric endocrinology. Results Age at diagnosis was 8.4 ± 4.1 years. Duration of symptoms was 10.8 ± 12.5 months and headache was most frequent (54%), followed by impaired growth (48%) and visual disturbances (44%). Most lesions were suprasellar (85%), and histology was adamantinomatous in all cases but two. Surgical approach was transcranial (TC) in 67.5% of cases and transsphenoidal (TS) in 31.%. The TC approach was prevalent in all age groups. Postsurgery complications occurred in 53% of cases, with water-electrolyte disturbances most frequent. Radiotherapy was used in 39% of cases. All patients but one presented with at least one hormone pituitary deficiency, with thyrotropin deficiency most frequent (98.3%), followed by adrenocorticotropin (96.8%), arginine vasopressin (91.1%), and GH (77.4%). Body mass index (BMI) significantly increased over time. A hypothalamic disturbance was present in 55% of cases. GH therapy was started during follow-up in 112 patients at a mean age of 10.6 years, and 54 developed a recurrence or regrowth of the residual lesion. Conclusion CP is often diagnosed late in Italy, with TC more frequent than the TS surgical approach. Postsurgery complications were not rare, and hypopituitarism developed almost in all cases. BMI shows a tendency to increase overtime.

Lockdown due to COVID-19 pandemic has forced a decrease in physical activity (PA), an increase in sedentary behavior (SB) and a possibly worsening of fat accumulation in already obese subjects. The aim of this study was to investigate how social restriction may have contributed to weight changes in adolescents with obesity. Secondary aim was to evaluate possible parameters influencing weight changes.Parameters of 51 obese adolescents were compared between two visits: within 2 months before 8 March, start of lockdown, and within 40 days after the end of it.Mean weight gain during lockdown was 2.8 ± 3.7 kg (p 0.001). Weight increase was higher in males than in females (3.8 ± 3.4 kg vs 1.2 ± 3.7 kg, p = 0.02). The hours dedicated to SB increased (+2.9 ± 2.8 h/day; p 0.001) while the hours of PA decreased (-1.0 ± 1.6 h/week; p 0.001). Males spent more hours in SB than females (+3.8 ± 2.7 h/day vs +1.5 ± 2.5 h/day; p = 0.003). There were minor changes in diet during lockdown. The most significant variables influencing both delta BMI and waist/height ratio increase were hours devoted to SB during lockdown and differences in mild and moderate PA before and after lockdown.Obese adolescents showed a worsening of obesity during lockdown, with males mainly affected, mainly due to a reduced mild PA and increased hours spent in SB.

Background: The link between the effects of recombinant human growth hormone (rhGH) therapy in patient with growth hormone deficiency (GHD) and Chiari malformation type I (CM-1) is controversial. Summary: We report the case of a patient with an unusual association of growth hormone deficiency (GHD) due to ectopic posterior pituitary and Chiari malformation type I (CM-1). Our patient developed headache and worsening of CM-1 after initiation of rhGH therapy. Following an atlo-occipital decompression surgery, the patient was able to resume therapy with a marked growth improvement. Based on this observation, we provide a systematic review of the current literature about these two pathologies. Key Messages: A careful follow-up of all patients with CM-1 treated with GH is mandatory, paying particular attention to the appearance of any neurological signs and symptoms.

Purpose: To investigate the long-term safety (primary endpoint) and effectiveness (secondary endpoint) of the somatropin biosimilar Omnitrope®. Methods: PATRO Children is an ongoing, multicenter, observational, post-marketing surveillance study. Children who received Omnitrope® for any indication were included. Adverse events (AEs) were evaluated in all study participants. Auxological data, including height standard deviation scores (HSDS) and height velocity standard deviation scores (HVSDS), were used to assess effectiveness. In this snapshot analysis, data from the Italian subpopulation up to August 2017 were reported. Results: A total of 291 patients (mean age 10.0 years, 56.0% male) were enrolled at 19 sites in Italy. The mean duration of Omnitrope® treatment was 33.1 ± 21.7 months. There were 48 AEs with a suspected relationship to the study drug (as reported by the investigator) that occurred in 35 (12.0%) patients, most commonly headache, pyrexia, arthralgia, insulin-like growth factor above normal range, abdominal pain, pain in extremity and acute gastroenteritis. There were no confirmed cases of type 1 or type 2 diabetes; however, two patients (0.7%) had impaired glucose tolerance that was considered Omnitrope® related. The mean HSDS increased from − 2.41 ± 0.73 at baseline (n = 238) to − 0.91 ± 0.68 at 6.5 years (n = 10). The mean HVSDS increased from − 1.77 ± 1.38 at baseline (n = 136) to 0.96 ± 1.13 at 6.5 years (n = 10). Conclusions: In this sub-analysis of PATRO Children, Omnitrope® appeared to have acceptable safety and effectiveness in the treatment of in Italian children, which was consistent with the earlier findings from controlled clinical trials.

Type 1 diabetes (T1D) and obesity are strongly associated with cardiovascular (CV) risk and can start in the paediatric age. The CV risk profile of two groups of adolescents was compared through the evaluation of sAGE, IMT and known variables associated with CV risk. The first group was affected by T1D with duration of disease of at least 5 years or 3 years since puberty onset, and the second by severe obesity for more than 3 years. A total of 116 patients were prospectively enrolled in the study (71 T1D, 33 males and 38 females; 45 obese, 18 males and 27 females), and their sAGE, IMT, waist/height ratio, LDL cholesterol, triglycerides/cholesterol HDL ratio, BMI, HbA1c and blood pressure were measured. An IMT value > 0.7 mm, cut-off value to define CV risk, was present in 28% of the obese patients and in no T1D patients. Age-adjusted sAGE and HbA1c levels were higher T1D patients, whereas a higher percentage of pathological values was present in most of the remaining studied variables. In T1D patients, there was a higher percentage of females with waist/height ratio > 0.5, LDL cholesterol > 100 mg/dL, triglycerides/HDL cholesterol ratio > 2 and BMI > 99° centile and a higher percentage of males with HbA1c > 7%. On the contrary, in obese patients there were no differences between males and females. Multiple analysis is identified BMI SDS as the only variable with a significant influence on IMT in both groups. Furthermore, it showed that HbA1c and gender affected sAGE in T1D patients, whereas only age and gender in the obese patients. Our study demonstrates that our adolescents with severe obesity carry a much higher CV risk than adolescents with T1D unless in bad metabolic control. Apart from lower sAGE levels, most of the variables considered to define CV risk were higher in the obese group than in the T1D group. Gender seems to have a significant impact on sAGE levels but not on IMT.

Il progresso della tecnologia nel settore diabetologico ha portato allo sviluppo di sensori per la rilevazione in continuo del glucosio e al perfezionamento dei precedenti sistemi a infusione continua di insulina. Lo sviluppo di algoritmi ad hoc da parte di alcuni gruppi di ricerca universitari internazionali ha successivamente permesso la realizzazione di sistemi ad ansa chiusa (pancreas artificiale), in grado di modulare la secrezione insulinica a seconda della variazione del glucosio. L’aggiunta del glucagone alle pompe insuliniche (pancreas bionico) costituisce il presupposto del vero pancreas artificiale e un numero crescente di studi sulla sua superiorita rispetto ai sistemi che utilizzano la sola insulina e stato pubblicato negli ultimi 5 anni. Per la sua diffusione su larga scala rimangono alcuni problemi da risolvere tra cui la produzione di un glucagone stabile a temperatura ambiente, la maggior portabilita del sistema e, non ultimo, un prezzo accettabile per i sistemi sanitari nazionali.

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Obiettivi: elaborare un modello di previsione della statura finale in pazienti pediatrici con deficit di GH trattati con somatropina ricombinante, valutando quali siano le variabili più importanti nel determinismo della statura finale. Metodi: 1043 pazienti trattati per deficit di GH (picco di GH

Background: Classic criteria for a maturity-onset diabetes of the young (MODY) diagnosis are often unable to identify all subjects, and traditional Sanger sequencing, using a candidate gene approach, leads to a high prevalence of missed genetic diagnosis, classified as MODY-X. Next generation sequencing (NGS) panels provide a highly sensitive method even for rare forms. Methods: We investigated 28 pediatric subjects suspected for MODY-X, utilizing a 15-gene NGS panel for monogenic diabetes (MD). Results: NGS detected variants of uncertain significance (VUS), likely pathogenic or pathogenic for rarer subtypes of MODY, in six patients. We found variants in the wolframin gene (WFS1), traditionally not considered in MD genetic screening panels, in three patients; KCNJ11 gene mutation, typically responsible for neonatal diabetes and rarely causing isolated diabetes in adolescents; INS gene mutation; a variant in the HNF1B gene in a young male with diabetes on sulfonylurea treatment. Conclusion: In our cohort, the availability of an NGS panel for MD was determined for the correct identification of MD subtypes in six patients with MODY-X. Our study underlines how a precise diagnosis utilizing NGS may have an impact on the management of different forms of MODY and, thus, lead to a tailored treatment and enable genetic counselling of other family members.

In the last few decades, many studies have reported an increasing global incidence of type 1 diabetes. Studies on migrant populations have underlined the importance of both environmental and genetic factors.Evaluate the incidence of type 1 diabetes in North African vs Italian children aged 0-14 years from 1 January 2015, to 31st December 2018, in Emilia-Romagna region, Italy.Clinical and epidemiological data about childhood onset type 1 diabetes in Emilia Romagna region were retrospectively collected by the regional centers of pediatric diabetology and matched using 3 different data sources.365 new cases were diagnosed. Total cumulative incidence was 15.4/100,000/year. North African cases showed a cumulative incidence of 53.8/100,000/year, statistically significant compared to cumulative incidence of the Italian cases alone 13.1/100,000/year (p value 0.001). The annual incidence did not differ in the 4 years for both groups. Conclusion: The incidence of type 1 diabetes in the pediatric age (0 14 years) was significantly higher in the North African population than in the Italian one, suggesting that a mix of genetic and environmental factors may have caused the increase in newly diagnosed cases.• The incidence of type 1 diabetes largely varies worldwide. • Study on immigrants helped to better understand the interplay role between genetics and environment.• This is the first study focused on the incidence of children and adolescents of North African migrants in Italy. • The incidence of children and adolescents of North African migrants in Emilia Romagna region, Italy, seems to be higher than that reported in the host countries, and, above all, than that reported in highest-incidence countries in Europe and in the world.

L’ipogonadismo puo essere suddiviso in ipergonadotropo e in ipogonadotropo a seconda del danno primitivo delle gonadi nel primo caso o della mancata attivazione dell’asse ipotalamo-ipofisi-gonadi nel secondo. In entrambe le situazioni vi sono forme congenite e forme acquisite. Nella maggior parte di queste forme vi e un interessamento della crescita staturale per il mancato effetto positivo degli steroidi sessuali sulla cartilagine di crescita, con la crescita puberale maggiormente interessata. Nel sesso maschile e importante la diagnosi differenziale con il ritardo costituzionale di crescita e puberta, patologia benigna e molto piu comune rispetto all’ipogonadismo: il problema si risolve, infatti, spontaneamente con un recupero staturale che avverra in ritardo rispetto a quanto previsto dalla fisiologia della puberta. Il rischio di una bassa statura puo essere elevato nei casi in cui la diagnosi di ipogonadismo venga posta tardivamente, a un’eta scheletrica, cioe, prossima alla saldatura delle cartilagini di accrescimento.

Xarxes reguladores de gens; Marcadors predictius Redes reguladoras de genes; Marcadores predictivos Gene regulatory networks; Predictive markers Recombinant human growth hormone (r-hGH) is used as a therapeutic agent for disorders of growth including growth hormone deficiency (GHD) and Turner syndrome (TS). Treatment is costly and current methods to model response are inexact. GHD (n = 71) and TS patients (n = 43) were recruited to study response to r-hGH over 5 years. Analysis was performed using 1219 genetic markers and baseline (pre-treatment) blood transcriptome. Random forest was used to determine predictive value of transcriptomic data associated with growth response. No genetic marker passed the stringency criteria for prediction. However, we identified an identical set of genes in both GHD and TS whose expression could be used to classify therapeutic response to r-hGH with a high accuracy (AUC > 0.9). Combining transcriptomic markers with clinical phenotype was shown to significantly reduce predictive error. This work could be translated into a single genomic test linked to a prediction algorithm to improve clinical management. Trial registration numbers: NCT00256126 and NCT00699855. This work was supported by Merck KGaA, Darmstadt, Germany.

Objective Transient neonatal diabetes mellitus (TNDM) is caused by activating mutations in ABCC8 and KCNJ11 genes (KATP/TNDM) or by chromosome 6q24 abnormalities (6q24/TNDM). We wanted to assess whether these different genetic aetiologies result in distinct clinical features. Design Retrospective analysis of the Italian data set of patients with TNDM. Methods Clinical features and treatment of 22 KATP/TNDM patients and 12 6q24/TNDM patients were compared. Results Fourteen KATP/TNDM probands had a carrier parent with abnormal glucose values, four patients with 6q24 showed macroglossia and/or umbilical hernia. Median age at diabetes onset and birth weight were lower in patients with 6q24 (1 week; −2.27 SD) than those with KATP mutations (4.0 weeks; −1.04 SD) (P = 0.009 and P = 0.007, respectively). Median time to remission was longer in KATP/TNDM than 6q24/TNDM (21.5 weeks vs 12 weeks) (P = 0.002). Two KATP/TNDM patients entered diabetes remission without pharmacological therapy. A proband with the ABCC8/L225P variant previously associated with permanent neonatal diabetes entered 7-year long remission after 1 year of sulfonylurea therapy. Seven diabetic individuals with KATP mutations were successfully treated with sulfonylurea monotherapy; four cases with relapsing 6q24/TNDM were treated with insulin, metformin or combination therapy. Conclusions If TNDM is suspected, KATP genes should be analyzed first with the exception of patients with macroglossia and/or umbilical hernia. Remission of diabetes without pharmacological therapy should not preclude genetic analysis. Early treatment with sulfonylurea may induce long-lasting remission of diabetes in patients with KATP mutations associated with PNDM. Adult patients carrying KATP/TNDM mutations respond favourably to sulfonylurea monotherapy.

AIM To ascertain whether the prevalence of retinopathy has declined over the last 2 decades in individuals with childhood-onset type 1 diabetes and whether this might be explained by changes in lifetime HbA1c. MATERIALS AND METHODS A multicentre, retrospective, observational study, comparing 128 subjects with diabetes onset in 2000-2003 assessed for retinopathy in 2016-2019, with a previous cohort of 115 individuals diagnosed in 1990-1993 and assessed for retinopathy in 2007-2009, was conducted. The two cohorts had both a similar diabetes duration and age at diagnosis. Retinal photographs were centrally graded. Lifetime HbA1c and its variability, estimated as the ratio between intrapersonal mean and standard deviation of HbA1c, were evaluated. RESULTS The prevalence of any retinopathy in the new and old cohort was 24.2% and 43.5% (P

Cystic fibrosis related diabetes (CFRD) is a comorbidity of cystic fibrosis (CF) that negatively impacts on its clinical course. Prediabetes is an important predictor of either CFRD development and unfavorable prognosis of CF in both pediatric and adult patients. International guidelines recommend insulin only in case of CFRD diagnosis. Whether early detection and treatment of prediabetes may contribute to improve the clinical course of CF is still debated. A subgroup of pediatric diabetologists of the Italian Society for Pediatric Endocrinology and Diabetology (ISPED) performed a systematic review of the literature based on predefined outcomes: impact of pre-diabetes on clinical outcomes and on the risk of developing CFRD; diagnosis of diabetes and pre-diabetes under 10 years of age; effectiveness of therapy on glycemic control, impact of therapy on pulmonary function and nutritional status. Thirty-one papers were selected for the analysis data presented in these papers were reported in tables sorted by outcomes, including comprehensive evidence grading according to the GRADE approach. Following the grading of the quality of the evidence, the entire ISPED diabetes study group achieved consensus for the Italian recommendations based on both evidence and clinical experience. We concluded that in patients with CF, prediabetes should be carefully considered as it can evolve into CFRD. In patients with CF and prediabetic conditions, after complete evaluation of the OGTT trend, glucometrics, glycemic values measured during pulmonary exacerbations and/or steroid therapy, early initiation of insulin therapy could have beneficial effects on clinical outcomes of patients with CF and prediabetes.

Aim: To evaluate the impact of a virtual educational camp (vEC) on glucose control in children and adolescents with type 1 diabetes using a closed-loop control (CLC) system. Materials and Methods: This was a prospective multicentre study of children and adolescents with type 1 diabetes using the Tandem Basal-IQ system. Insulin pumps were upgraded to Control-IQ, and children and their parents participated in a 3-day multidisciplinary vEC. Clinical data, glucose metrics and HbA1c were evaluated over the 12 weeks prior to the Control-IQ update and over the 12 weeks after the vEC. Results: Forty-three children and adolescents (aged 7-16 years) with type 1 diabetes and their families participated in the vEC. The median percentage of time in target range (70-180 mg/dL; TIR) increased from 64% (interquartile range [IQR] 56%-73%) with Basal-IQ to 76% (IQR 71%-81%) with Control-IQ (P&nbsp

Aims: To evaluate the relationships between HbA1c and Continuous Glucose Monitoring (CGM) metrics in children/adolescents with Type 1 Diabetes (T1D). Methods: HbA1c and real-life CGM data of the 12 weeks preceding its measurement were retrospectively collected from 654 children/adolescents with T1D. The relationships between HbA1c and CGM metrics were assessed by Spearman correlation coefficient. Participants were categorized into groups based on HbA1c and CGM metrics values. ANOVA was run across HbA1c and CGM metrics groups in the entire study population and in subjects stratified by CGM type, insulin therapy, age and puberty. Results: HbA1c was positively correlated with mean glucose, SD, %TAR > 180 mg/dL, %TAR > 250 mg/dL, HBGI and negatively with %TIR, %TBR and %time < 54 mg/dL. HbA1c-based groups were significantly associated with these metrics, but for each group their value widely ranged with a substantial overlap between them. HbA1c and HbA1c-based groups were not associated with %CV and LBGI, as well as %CV and LBGI-based groups had not significantly different HbA1c. Comparable results were found analysing subjects according to age, type of CGM, insulin therapy and puberty. Conclusions: The relationships between HbA1c and CGM metrics described in this cohort of paediatric subjects with T1D support the importance of the evaluation of these metrics, in particular %CV and LBGI, independently of HbA1c value.

Background: Glucose sensors consist of real-time continuous glucose monitoring (rtCGM) and intermittently scanned CGM (isCGM). Their clinical use has been widely increasing during the past 5 years. The aim of this study is to evaluate percentage of time in range (TIR) in a large group of children with type 1 diabetes (T1D) using glucose sensors with nonautomated insulin delivery systems, in a real-world setting. Methods: An 11-center cross-sectional study was conducted during January-May 2019. Children with T1D 1 year, treated with multiple daily injections (MDI) or nonautomated insulin pump (IP), were recruited consecutively. Clinical data, HbA1c measurement, and CGM downloaded data were collected by each center and included in a centralized database for the analysis. Glucose metrics of four treatment strategies were analyzed: isCGM-MDI, rtCGM-MDI, isCGM-IP, and rtCGM-IP. Results: Data from 666 children with T1D (51% male and 49% female), median age 12 years, diabetes duration 5 years, were analyzed. An rtCGM was used by 51% of the participants, and a nonautomated IP by 46%. For isCGM-MDI, rtCGM-MDI, isCGM-IP, and rtCGM-IP, the median TIR 70-180 mg/dL values were 49%, 56%, 56%, and 61% (P < 0.001), respectively; HbA1c 7.6%, 7.5%, 7.3%, and 7.3% (P < 0.001), respectively. Use of rtCGM was associated with significant lower time below target range 180 mg/dL and lower HbA1c. If there are no barriers, an upgrade of the treatment strategy with a higher performing technology should be offered to all children who do not achieve blood glucose metrics within the suggested range.

Continuous glucose monitoring systems are mainly produced by Dexcom, Medtronic, Abbott, and Roche. CGM accuracy is lower in the hyper- and hypoglycemic range. Some CGM systems allow for prediction of hypoglycemia before it happens through alarms. Glucose values can be sent on clouds and followed by parents on mobile phones. All equipments allow data download on specific platforms which provide statistics on glucose patterns. CGM can be associated with insulin pumps to provide semi-closed loop systems.

Background: No studies have assessed if 2-week of continuous glucose monitoring (CGM) data provide good estimation of long-term glycemic control and glucose variability (GV) in pediatric patients with type 1 diabetes (T1D) as in adults. Methods: Six hundred fifty-four T1D pediatric patients were enrolled and 12-weeks of CGM data, before HbA1c measurement, were collected. Metrics of glycemic control and GV in incremental sampling periods were calculated. The agreement between metrics calculated in the sampling periods and the full 12-week period was assessed with correlation analysis (R2), median relative absolute difference (RAD) or absolute difference in the entire study populations and subjects stratified by age, pubertal status, insulin therapy (MDI,CSII), type of CGM (intermittently scanned [isCGM], real-time [rtCGM]), and HbA1c level. Results: Correlations with metrics of the full 12-week period improved by extending the sampling periods. R2 values close to 0.90 using 4-week period were significantly higher than 2-week period, particularly for coefficient of variation, mean glucose SD, percentage of time below the range

Aims to assess the prevalence of cardiovascular risk factors (CVRFs) and to identify the variables associated with CVRFs in a cohort of children and adolescents with Type 1 Diabetes. Methods 2,021 subjects, 2-18 year-old, were recruited in 17 Italian Pediatric Diabetes Centers. Anthropometric, blood pressure, biochemical (HbA1c, lipid profile, ACR), insulin therapy, physical activity level, smoking and family socio-economic status data were collected. CVRFs prevalence and their distribution were analyzed according to age and binary logistic regression was performed with positivity for at least one major CVRF (BMI-SDS>+2SD, blood pressure>90th percentile, LDL cholesterol>100 mg/dl) as dependent variable and age, duration of illness, gender, HbA1c and physical activity, as independent variables. Results The prevalence of CVFRs not at the recommended target was respectively: 32.5% one CVRF, 6.7% two CVRFs and 0.6% three CVRFs, with no significant differences across the 3 age groups (2-10, 10-15, 15-18 years). In the total sample, HbA1c and inadequate physical activity were associated with a higher probability of having at least one major CVRF. This probability was associated with physical activity in the 2-10-year-old group, with physical activity and HbA1c in the 10-15-year-old group and with HbA1c only in subjects older than 15 years. Conclusions More than 30% of subjects had at least a major CVRF. Early detection of CVRFs may be useful to enforce the therapeutic intervention in this subgroup, in order to reduce the risk to develop cardiovascular complications. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Diabetes mellitus is a chronic disease affecting millions of people worldwide. Type 2 diabetes is the most frequent form, involving more than 10% of the population over the age of 50 in some developed countries and it is mainly associated with sedentary habits and obesity. Type 1 diabetes (T1D) represents 5–10% of the cases of diabetes and affected individuals need insulin therapy right from diagnosis. Type 1 diabetes most commonly affects children and young people as it is diagnosed before the age of 18 in over 50% of cases, thus exposing the subjects to hyperglycemia for several decades. Chronic hyperglycemia, whatever the cause is, inevitably leads to the typical diabetes complications affecting both the microvascular circulation mainly of the retina, the kidneys and peripheral nervous system, and the big vessels, therefore accelerating atherosclerotic processes. Myocardial infarction is the first cause of death in patients suffering from any types of diabetes.