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How evolution at the cellular level potentiates change at the macroevolutionary level is a major question in evolutionary biology. With >66,000 described species, rove beetles (Staphylinidae) comprise the largest metazoan family. Their exceptional radiation has been coupled to pervasive biosynthetic innovation whereby numerous lineages bear defensive glands with diverse chemistries. Here, we combine comparative genomic and single cell transcriptomic data from across the largest rove beetle clade, Aleocharinae. We retrace the functional evolution of two novel secretory cell types that together comprise the tergal gland - a putative catalyst behind Aleocharinae's megadiversity. We identify key genomic contingencies that were critical to the assembly of each cell type and their organ-level partnership in manufacturing the beetle's defensive secretion. This process hinged on evolving a mechanism for regulated production of noxious benzoquinones that appears convergent with plant toxin release systems, and synthesis of an effective benzoquinone solvent that weaponized the total secretion. We show that this cooperative biosynthetic system arose at the Jurassic-Cretaceous boundary, and that following its establishment, both cell types underwent ~150 million years of stasis, their chemistry and core molecular architecture maintained almost clade-wide as Aleocharinae radiated globally into tens of thousands of lineages. Despite this deep conservation, we show that the two cell types have acted as substrates for the emergence of adaptive, biochemical novelties - most dramatically in symbiotic lineages that have infiltrated social insect colonies and produce host behavior-manipulating secretions. Our findings uncover genomic and cell type evolutionary processes underlying the origin, functional conservation and evolvability of a chemical innovation in beetles.

Termites, an economically significant group of eusocial cockroaches, are host to a variety of ectoparasitic fungi. Here, we provide up-to-date morphological and geographic data for fungal ectoparasites described belonging to the family Kathistaceae and describe Termitaria hexasporodochia sp. nov., a species observed to form lesions on its host in an unusual hexad arrangement. To date, the family Kathistaceae comprises 4 genera (Kathistes, Mattirolella, Termitaria, and Termitariopsis) and 11 valid species. Two genera we focus on in this paper, Termitaria and Mattirolella, are asexual ectoparasitic fungi that form sporodochia on the eusocial insects, termites. Morphological data collected via Micro-CT, SEM, and confocal microscopy confirms that this is a new fungal species belonging to the genus Termitaria. A comparison chart and dichotomous key are provided to distinguish all members of the family, Kathistaceae, to which the new species belongs.

The isomerization of the highly strained benzvalyne structure to o-benzyne has been investigated using MCSCF and CCSD(T) levels of theory.

Herhold, Hollister W, Davis, Steven R, Degrey, Samuel P, Grimaldi, David A (2023): COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF THE INSECT TRACHEAL SYSTEM PART 1: INTRODUCTION, APTERYGOTES, PALEOPTERA, POLYNEOPTERA. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 459 (1): 1-184, DOI: 10.5531/sd.sp.55, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.5531/sd.sp.55

Appropriate control of impurities from all sources is critically important during the development of a pharmaceutical product. One class of impurity that has gained considerable attention over the ...

Among the many inclusions from the exceptionally rich fossiliferous amber of Zhangpu, China (Middle Miocene: Langhian), stingless bees (Apinae: Meliponini) are particularly common, analogous to the merely slightly older amber sites of Mexico and the Dominican Republic. While there is a large number of workers in Zhangpu amber, only two species are represented. The systematics and morphology of the tribe Meliponini is outlined, including a revision to terms of orientation and direction when discussing surfaces and features of appendages, all in order to better discuss the traits of the fossils as well as place them into a broader context in the global systematics of stingless bees. The two amber species are representative of two Old World genera of Meliponini: Tetragonula Moure and Austroplebeia Moure. While the former is widespread across southern Asia, Malesia, Papuasia, and Australia, the latter is today known only from New Guinea and Australia. Neither genus occurs in the environs of Zhangpu today. Tetragonula (Tetragonula) florilega Engel, new species, is a generally typical species of the subgenus although it intermingles traits otherwise found in two large species groups of non-Australian Tetragonula s.str. The species of Austroplebeia from Zhangpu is sufficiently distinct to place in a new subgenus, Anteplebeina Engel. Austroplebeia (Anteplebeina) fujianica Engel, new species, shares a long list of character states with Austroplebeia s.str., including the presence of yellow maculation on the face, mesoscutum, mesoscutellum, and metepisternum, found only in this clade among Asiatic Meliponini. Nonetheless, the species differs in the length of the malar space and various features of wing venation. Keys are provided to the genera in Zhangpu amber and the subgenera of both genera. The diversity of stingless bees in amber is discussed, as well as the presence of these two fossils in the Middle Miocene of mainland Asia in relation to prior divergence time estimates, phylogenetic relationships, as well as the paleogeography of the region and potential biogeographic hypotheses. The biological association of stingless bees with resins, particularly the collection of dipterocarp resins, is discussed as Zhangpu amber is a Class II resin likely produced by an extinct species of Dipterocarpaceae (Malvales). Also discussed are the ecological preferences of modern Tetragonula and Austroplebeia relative to the reconstructed paleoenvironment of the Zhangpu amber rainforest. Emendations to the classification of Meliponini are appended, with the following new taxa proposed: Atrichotrigona Engel, new subgenus of Axestotrigona Moure; Lispotrigona V.H. Gonzalez & Engel, new subgenus of Nannotrigona Cockerell; Asperplebeia Engel, new genus; Nanoplebeia Engel, new subgenus of Plebeia Schwarz; Aphaneuropsis Engel, Koilotrigona Engel, Necrotrigona Engel, Dichrotrigona Engel, Nostotrigona Engel, Ktinotrofia Engel, all new subgenera of Trigona Jurine; Chapadapis Engel, new subgenus of Schwarziana Moure. The following higher groups are also established: Hypotrigonina Engel, new sutribe; Heterotrigonitae Engel, new infratribe; Trigoniscitae Engel, new infratribe.

The tribe Melikertini (Apinae: Corbiculata) is an extinct group of highly eusocial bees presently known only from early to late Eocene deposits of Eurasia. Among melikertine diversity are a suite of species peculiar for their rather dramatic morphological specializations, at least in relation to modern corbiculate Apinae. Here we document two new species of Melikertini and utilize standard X-ray as well as propagation phase contrast synchrotron computed microtomography to further explore these and previously known species, revealing finer details not previously observable from melikertines. Accordingly, some species placed in the genera Melikertes Engel and Succinapis Engel are reëvaluated. Three new genera are characterized, as well as some further facial modifications not previously known for the tribe. New taxa and taxonomic changes presented are: Aethemelikertes emunctorii Engel, new genus and species; Haidomelikertes uraeus Engel, new genus and species; H. proboscidea (Engel), new combination; Amelikertotes Engel, new genus; Amelikertotes clypeata (Engel), new combination. Additionally, new records and taxonomic notes on other Baltic amber and Eocene bees are appended, with the following nomenclatural changes established: Palaeomacropis Michez & Nel is recognized as a megachiline rather than a melittid, and is transferred to Megachilinae where it is a new junior synonym of Ctenoplectrella Cockerell (new synonymy); Ctenoplectrella eocenica (Michez & Nel), new combination; a key is provided to species of Ctenoplectrella; Thaumastobombina Engel, new subtribe in Electrapini; Thnetobombus Engel, new subgenus in Protobombus Cockerell; Mesomelissa Engel, new subgenus in Electrapis Cockerell; Electrapis (Euglossopteryx) biesmeijeri (De Meulemeester et al.), new combination. A list of Eocene bees is appended.

Ricinulei Thorell, 1876 is an order of Arachnida currently represented in the New and Old Worlds by 103 living species. The order is also represented in the fossil record from the Carboniferous (ca. 305–319 Ma) and the Cretaceous (ca. 99 Ma) periods. In the present contribution, Hirsutisoma grimaldii sp. nov., a new extinct species of the suborder Primoricinulei Wunderlich, 2015, is described from a specimen preserved in Cretaceous Burmese amber. The specimen is a well-preserved adult male in which several taxonomically informative structures are visible, allowing the new species to be differentiated from Hirsutisoma bruckschi Wunderlich, 2017, the only other congener for which a male is known. This description raises the number of Cretaceous Ricinulei species to six. A comparative table documents morphological differences among the various species of this lineage. Hypotheses concerning the paleoecology and functional morphology of this species and, by extrapolation, other primoricinuleids, are presented. The evidence suggests that Primoricinulei were corticolous, scansorial predators.

Oxygen is an important and often limiting reagent of a firefly’s bioluminescent chemical reaction. Therefore, the development of the tracheal system and its subsequent modification to support the function of firefly light organs are key to understanding this process. We employ micro-CT scanning, 3D rendering, and confocal microscopy to assess the abdominal tracheal system in Photinus pyralis from the external spiracles to the light organ’s internal tracheal brush, a feature named here for the first time. The abdominal spiracles in firefly larvae and pupae are of the biforous type, with a filter apparatus and appear to have an occlusor muscle to restrict airflow. The first abdominal spiracle in the adult firefly is enlarged and bears an occlusor muscle, and abdominal spiracles two through eight are small, with a small atrium and bilobed closing apparatus. Internal tracheal system features, including various branches, trunks, and viscerals, were homologized across life stages. In adults, the sexually dimorphic elaboration and increase in volume associated with tracheal features of luminous segments emphasizes the importance of gas exchange during the bioluminescent process.

Here we report the earliest known fossil belid, Sinoeuglypheus daohugouensis gen. et sp. nov., from the latest Middle Jurassic Jiulongshan Formation of north-eastern China. Extant belids are specia...

In temperate climates, the mosquitoCulex molestuslives almost exclusively in urban underground locations such as flooded basements, sewer systems and subway tunnels. Unlike most other mosquito taxa found at higher latitudes,Cx. molestusremains active and continues to breed throughout the winter. This is attributable to year-round above freezing temperatures in its preferred underground habitats combined with an inability to enter a state of arrested development (‘diapause’) in response to shortening photoperiods in autumn. Prior studies have shown that the genes associated with circadian rhythms (i.e. ‘clock genes’) also influence the photoperiodic induction of diapause in the closely related mosquito,Cx. pipiens. These results suggest that molecular changes in one or more clock genes could contribute to the absence of photoperiodically induced diapause inCx. molestus. AsCx. molestuspredominantly inhabits underground locations generally devoid of a predictable photoperiod, such mutations may not be removed by purifying selection as they would have minimal fitness consequences. To examine the possibility thatCx. molestus-specific genetic changes in one or more clock genes correlate with its inability to enter a photoperiodically induced dormant state, we first used genomic data to search for inactivating mutations or other structural variants in genes known to influence circadian rhythms in Diptera (‘flies’). We further investigated non-synonymous, derived genetic divergence in this same class of genes. Next, we generated transcriptome data from multiple life-stages ofCx. molestusto survey binary expression of annotated clock genes throughout this mosquito’s lifecycle. Finally, we carried out experimental studies to assess the extent to whichCx. molestusretains exogenously influenced circadian rhythms, and whether it harbors any tendencies towards dormancy when exposed to a shortened photoperiod. Our results indicate that the gene Helicase domino (dom) has a nine-nucleotide, in-frame deletion specific toCx. molestus. Previous work has shown that splice variants in this gene influence circadian behavior inDrosophila melanogaster. We also find derived, non-synonymous single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in eight genes that may also affect circadian rhythms and/or diapause induction inCx. molestus. Four other circadian genes were found to have no quantifiable expression during any examined life stage, suggesting potential regulatory variation. Our experimental results confirm thatCx. molestusretains exogenously-influenced circadian rhythms but is not induced to enter a dormant state by a shortened photoperiod. Collectively, these findings show that the distinct, but potentially molecularly interconnected life-history traits of diapause induction and circadian rhythms are decoupled inCx. molestusand suggest that this taxon may be a valuable tool for exploring exogenously influenced phenotypes in mosquitoes more broadly.

BackgroundWithin theCulex pipiensmosquito complex, there are six contemporarily recognized taxa:Cx.quinquefasciatus,Cx.pipiensf.pipiens,Cx.pipiensf.molestus,Cx.pipiens pallens,Cx.australicusandCx.globocoxitus. Many phylogenetic aspects within this complex have eluded resolution, such as the relationship of the two Australian endemic taxa to the other four members, as well as the evolutionary origins and taxonomic status ofCx.pipiens pallensandCx.pipiensf.molestus. Ultimately, insights into lineage relationships within the complex will facilitate a better understanding of differential disease transmission by these mosquitoes. To this end, we have combined publicly available data with our own sequencing efforts to examine these questions.ResultsWe found that the two Australian endemic complex members,Cx.australicusandCx.globocoxitus, comprise a monophyletic group, are genetically distinct, and are most closely related to the cosmopolitanCx.quinquefasciatus. Our results also show thatCx.pipiens pallensis genetically distinct, but may have arisen from past hybridization. Lastly, we observed complicated patterns of genetic differentiation within and betweenCx.pipiensf.pipiensandCx.pipiensf.molestus.ConclusionsTwo Australian endemicCulextaxa,Cx.australicusandCx.globocoxitus, belong within theCx. pipienscomplex, but have a relatively older evolutionary origin. They likely diverged fromCx.quinquefasciatusafter its colonization of Australia. The taxonCx.pipiens pallensis a distinct evolutionary entity that likely arose from past hybridization betweenCx.quinquefasciatusandCx.pipiensf.pipiens/Cx. pipiensf.molestus. Our results do not suggest it derives from ongoing hybridization. Finally, genetic differentiation within theCx.pipiensf.pipiensandCx.pipiensf.molestussamples suggests that they collectively form two separate geographic clades, one in North America and one in Europe and the Mediterranean. This may indicate that theCx.pipiensf.molestusform has two distinct origins, arising fromCx.pipiensf.pipiensin each region. However, ongoing genetic exchange within and between these taxa have obscured their evolutionary histories, and could also explain the absence of monophyly among our samples. Overall, this work suggests many avenues that warrant further investigation.

The ground state ionization energies of Z ⩽ 10 lithiumlike ions are calculated using fully correlated Gaussian wavefunctions. Leading-order relativistic corrections are evaluated, while QED corrections are established with small uncertainties by directly calculating the Araki–Sucher energy and expanding the three-electron Bethe logarithm in 1/Z. The non-relativistic α6 level shifts have also been calculated, and we have used these energies to recommend ionization energies, which include estimates of the influence of the relativistic portion of the α6 energy. The results emphasize the importance of the direct computation of the complete α6 correction, but also the need for new, higher accuracy experimental ionization limits.

The isomerizations of 3-aza-3-ium-dihydrobenzvalene, 3,4-diaza-3-ium-dihydrobenzvalene, and 3,4-diaza-diium-dihydrobenzvalene to their respective cyclic-diene products have been studied using electronic structure methods with a multiconfigurational wavefunction and several single reference methods. Transition states for both the allowed (conrotatory) and forbidden (disrotatory) pathways were located. The conrotatory pathways of each structure all proceed through a cyclic intermediate with a trans double bond in the ring: this trans double bond destroys the aromatic stabilization of the π electrons due to poor orbital overlap between the cis and trans π bonds. The 3, 4-diaza-3-ium-dihydrobenzvalene structure has C1 symmetry, and there are four separate allowed and forbidden pathways for this structure. The 3-aza-3-ium-dihydrobenzvalene structure is Cs symmetric, and there are two separate allowed and forbidden pathways for this structure. For 3, 4-diaza-3, 4-diium-benzvalene, there was a single allowed and...

The current classification of weevils has witnessed vast improvements at higher phylogenetic levels, though much remains unstable at the lower levels. In order to develop a more robust morphological character system for cladistic analysis of the higher lineages and to gain a comprehensive understanding of the structure of a hallmark feature of weevils, a comparative study was conducted of rostra throughout Curculionoidea. Semithin sections were made of the rostra of 36 exemplar genera representing all seven currently recognized weevil families, as well as 19 of 21 subfamilies within the largest family, Curculionidae, and internal structures were examined for phylogenetically informative characters. While the morphological diversity of rostral forms is impressive, general trends are apparent with respect to life-history traits and modes of feeding. Exploration of internal rostral morphology has yielded valuable but previously unexplored characters that greatly complement the external characters of...

Etheophanus Broun is considered a molytine based on the form of the pharyngeal plate, presence of a small spiculum relictum in the male, and presence of a pair of small internal apodemes on the antero-lateral corners of the 5th abdominal ventrite of the female. Examination of primary type specimens and newer material confirm one new species Etheophanus kuscheli sp. n. and two synonomies (Etheophanus nitidellus Broun, 1923 [= Etheophanus obscurus Broun, 1923] and Etheophanus striatus Broun, 1910 [=Etheophanus punctiventris Broun, 1914]). Generic and species diagnoses, a key to the species, and lectotype designations for three species are included. Phylogenetic reconstructions based on a combined analysis of the nuclear 28S rRNA and mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I genes confirmed the status of E. kuscheli and a species complex, the E. nitidellus/E. optandus clade distributed in the southern portion of the South Island. The relationship E. pinguis [northern North Island] (E. striatus [southern North Island, northern South Island] (E. kuscheli [northwestern South Island] (E. nitidellus, E. optandus [southwestern North Island]) corresponds to geographic patterns found in other beetle lineages. Etheophanus striatus is composed of three lineages, one widespread in the north and south islands and two allopatric populations in the northwest South Island. The E. nitidellus/E. optandus complex includes four distinct lineages, one restricted to Fiordland, the other three sympatric in the region affected by the Haast Corridor.

Burnt mounds, or fulachtaí fiadh as they are known in Ireland, are probably the most common prehistoric site type in Ireland and Britain. Typically Middle–Late Bronze Age in age (although both earlier and later examples are known), they are artefact-poor and rarely associated with settlements. The function of these sites has been much debated with the most commonly cited uses being for cooking, as steam baths or saunas, for brewing, tanning, or textile processing. A number of major infrastructural development schemes in Ireland in the years 2002–2007 revealed remarkable numbers of these mounds often associated with wood-lined troughs, many of which were extremely well-preserved. This afforded an opportunity to investigate them as landscape features using environmental techniques – specifically plant macrofossils and charcoal, pollen, beetles, and multi-element analyses. This paper summarises the results from eight sites from Ireland and compares them with burnt mound sites in Great Britain. The fulachtaí fiadh which are generally in clusters, are all groundwater-fed by springs, along floodplains and at the bases of slopes. The sites are associated with the clearance of wet woodland for fuel; most had evidence of nearby agriculture and all revealed low levels of grazing. Multi-element analysis at two sites revealed elevated heavy metal concentrations suggesting that off-site soil, ash or urine had been used in the trough. Overall the evidence suggests that the most likely function for these sites is textile production involving both cleaning and/or dyeing of wool and/or natural plant fibres and as a functionally related activity to hide cleaning and tanning. Whilst further research is clearly needed to confirm if fulachtaí fiadh are part of the ‘textile revolution’ we should also recognise their important role in the rapid deforestation of the wetter parts of primary woodland and the expansion of agriculture into marginal areas during the Irish and British Bronze Ages.

Insects have long been thought to largely not require hemoglobins, with some notable exceptions like the red hemolymph of chironomid larvae. The tubular, branching network of tracheae in hexapods is traditionally considered sufficient for their respiration. Where hemoglobins do occur sporadically in plants and animals, they are believed to be either convergent, or because they are ancient in origin and their expression is lost in many clades. Our comprehensive analysis of 845 Hexapod transcriptomes, totaling over 38 Gbases, revealed the expression of hemoglobins in all 32 orders of hexapods, including the 29 recognized orders of insects. Discovery and identification of 1333 putative hemoglobins were achieved with target-gene BLAST searches of the NCBI TSA database, verifying functional residues, secondary- and tertiary-structure predictions, and localization predictions based on machine learning. While the majority of these hemoglobins are intracellular, extracellular ones were recovered in 38 species. Gene trees were constructed via multiple-sequence alignments and phylogenetic analyses. These indicate duplication events within insects and a monophyletic grouping of hemoglobins outside other globin clades, for which we propose the term insectahemoglobins. These hemoglobins are phylogenetically adjacent and appear structurally convergent with the clade of chordate myoglobins, cytoglobins, and hemoglobins. Their derivation and co-option from early neuroglobins may explain the widespread nature of hemoglobins in various kingdoms and phyla. These results will guide future work involving genome comparisons to transcriptome results, experimental investigations of gene expression, cell and tissue localization, and gas binding properties, all of which are needed to further illuminate the complex respiratory adaptations in insects.

The isomerizations of 3,4-diazatricyclo[4.1.0.02,7]hept-3-ene and 3,4-diazatricyclo[4.1.0.02,7]heptane to their corresponding products were studied by ab initio calculations. Structures were determined at the multiconfiguration self-consistent field level and energies calculated at the single state second-order MRMP level. The isomerization of 3,4-diazatricyclo[4.1.0.02,7]hept-3-ene occurs through four unique pathways with barriers of 36.1 and 37.9 kcal mol-1 for the allowed channels, while those for the forbidden channels were 44.3 and 56.5 kcal mol-1. The 12.2 kcal mol-1 disparity in the disrotatory barriers is explained through electron delocalization in the transition state. The 3,4-diazatricyclo[4.1.0.02,7]heptane structure has eight separate reaction channels for isomerization, and the allowed barriers ranged from 37.4-43.3 kcal mol-1 while the forbidden barriers ranged from 49.5-57.3 kcal mol-1. Resonance stabilization for two of the forbidden pathways results in a relative energy lowering. The energy difference in the four allowed barriers is due mainly to steric considerations. The isomerization of 3,4,5-triazatricyclo[4.1.0.02,7]hept-3-ene through the disrotatory channel was studied to help identify stabilization effects from π bond electrons and lone pair electrons: π bond electrons showed greater contribution for molecular stabilization than lone pair electrons.

Human milk oligosaccharides (HMOs) function as prebiotics in the infant gut by selecting for specific species of bifidobacteria and bacteroides, but little is known about their potential utilization by Enterobacteriaceae, the relative numbers of which have been linked to the onset of necrotizing enterocolitis in preterm infants. In this study, the in vitro growth of purified HMOs and other related carbohydrates was evaluated using individual strains of Enterobacteriaceae and an Enterobacteriaceae consortia enriched from piglet feces. None of the Enterobacteriaceae strains grew on 2'-fucosyllactose, 6'-sialyllactose, or lacto-N-neotetraose (LNnT); however, several strains were capable of utilizing galactooligosaccharides, maltodextrin, and the mono- and disaccharide components of HMOs for growth. The enriched fecal consortia also did not grow on 2'-fucosyllactose or 6'-sialyllactose, but there was limited growth on LNnT. It was concluded that 2'-fucosyllactose and 6'-sialyllactose supplementation of preterm infant formula should not lead to an increase in Enterobacteriaceae; however, supplementation with LNnT may require further study.

The extinct parasitoid wasp family Spathiopterygidae is recorded for the first time from the mid-Cretaceous amber deposits of northern Myanmar, often referred to as Burmese amber. The family was previously known only from three species in Spanish (Albian) and New Jersey (Turonian) ambers, representing an otherwise western Eurasia/eastern North America distribution. The discovery of a new genus and species, Diaspathion ortegai Engel and Huang, gen. et sp. nov., reveals a novel combination of traits seemingly intermediary between the Albian and Turonian taxa. Comparisons are made between the known species and a revised key to genera is provided, along with some general remarks about challenges facing the study of fossil parasitoid wasps.

A new species, Orthotemnus longitarsus sp. n., is described from China, representing the first record of the genus Orthotemnus Wollaston, 1873 from China. Illustrations of diagnostic features of the new species and a key to all six species of the genus Orthotemnus (including Orthotemnus reflexus Wollaston, Orthotemnus disparilis Pascoe, Orthotemnus filiformis Champion, Orthotemnus expansus Hustache and Orthotemnus ulmi Zherichin) are provided. All type specimens of the new species are deposited in the National Zoological Museum in the Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China.

How symbiotic lifestyles evolve from free-living ecologies is poorly understood. Novel traits mediating symbioses may stem from preadaptations: features of free-living ancestors that predispose taxa to engage in nascent interspecies relationships. In Metazoa's largest family, Staphylinidae (rove beetles), the body plan within the subfamily Aleocharinae is preadaptive for symbioses with social insects. Short elytra expose a pliable abdomen that bears targetable glands for host manipulation or chemical defense. The exposed abdomen has also been convergently refashioned into ant- and termite-mimicking shapes in multiple symbiotic lineages. Here we show how this preadaptive anatomy evolved via novel Hox gene functions that remodeled the ancestral coleopteran groundplan. Using the model staphylinid Dalotia coriaria, we abolished activities of the five thoracic and abdominal Hox genes. We show that elytral shortening is a staphylinid-specific property of the Hox-less appendage ground state, which is overridden in the metathorax by Ultrabithorax to promote hind wing expansion. In the exposed abdomen, we present evidence that defensive gland development stems from novel combinatorial outputs of the Abdominal-A and Abdominal-B Hox proteins: in the posterior compartment of tergite VI they specify a chemical gland reservoir, an imaginal disc-like invagination of ectodermal secretory cells; in the anterior compartment of tergite VII Abdominal-A and Abdominal-B specify clusters of classical duct-bearing glands. These distinct gland cell types collectively synthesize a blend of benzoquinone irritants, surfactant esters and alkane solvent, a defensive chemistry, which in symbiotic species has been augmented with specialized volatiles that potently manipulate ant behavior. These results reveal how Hox-controlled body axis modifications caused a convergent trend towards evolving symbiosis in the Metazoa.

cope Here we have tested the hypothesis that prebiotic galacto-oligosaccharides (GOS) may enhance mucosal barrier function through direct modulation of goblet cell function. Methods and results Human adenocarcinoma-derived LS174T cells, which exhibit an intestinal goblet cell-like phenotype, were used to examine the non-prebiotic effects of GOS on goblet cell functions. LS174T cells were treated with GOS, and the expression of goblet cell secretory product genes mucin 2 (MUC2), trefoil factor 3 (TFF3), resistin-like molecule beta (RETNLB) and the Golgi-sulfotransferase genes, carbohydrate (N-acetylglucosamine-6-O) sulfotransferase 5 (CHST5) and galactose-3-O-sulfotransferase 2 (GAL3ST2), was determined by real-time quantitative RT-PCR. In addition, the abundance of CHST5, TFF3 and RETNLB was confirmed by Western blot analysis. Following treatment with GOS for 72 h, the expression of MUC2 was significantly upregulated 2–4-fold, CHST5 and RETNLB, 5–7-fold, and TFF3 2–4-fold. Western blot analysis demonstrated increased abundance of RETNLB, TFF3 and CHST5. Addition of the Th2 cytokine IL-13 along with GOS resulted in synergistic induction of RETNLB and CHST5. IL-8 secretion was not affected by GOS treatment, suggesting that the effects of GOS are not mediated through an inflammatory pathway. Conclusion Collectively, the data indicate that GOS may enhance mucosal barrier function through direct stimulation of intestinal goblet cells.

A new weevil, Pheude punctatus gen. et sp. n., of the tribe Dryotribini in Cossoninae, is described from Guangdong Province, South China. It differs from the related genera Dryotribus Horn and Microtribodes Morimoto in having antennae with seven articles and a distinct scutellum, and from Ochronanus Pascoe and Stenomimus Wollaston in having long antennae, a rostrum with a medio-longitudinal furrow beginning at the posterior margin of the eyes and extending approximately midway on the rostrum, and a moderately elevated, medio-longitudinal carina extending the full length of the pronotum. Other diagnostic characters and illustrations are provided. A key to the genera of Dryotribini known from China is given.

Three new weevil (Coleoptera: Curculionoidea) species from Cretaceous amber of Spain (early Albian) and France (late Albian – early Cenomanian) are described. Nemonychidae are represented by two Spanish specimens from the El Soplao and San Just deposits and described as Arra legalovi gen. et sp. nov., Caridae are described from one specimen in the Spanish deposit of El Soplao and named as Albicar contriti gen. et sp. nov., and Curculionidae are documented from one specimen embedded in opaque amber from the French deposit of Archingeay and described as Antiquis opaque gen. et sp. nov. These three new species provide valuable information because they appear to reflect, together with the previously described weevils in Cretaceous ambers, the gradual shift in the dominance of particular curculionoid families across the Cretaceous. Propagation phase-contrast X-ray synchrotron microtomography was utilized to obtain high quality 3D images for some fossils and, at the same time, permit a concise description of them. © 2014 The Linnean Society of London

Well-preserved arthropods are reported from Miocene sedimentary rocks of the Skarðsstrond–Mokollsdalur (9–8 Ma) and Hreðavatn–Stafholt (7–6 Ma) Formations in Iceland. Fossil remains of terrestrial and/or freshwater animals have rarely been reported from the island before. Here we provide the first overview of the surprisingly rich Tortonian fauna from the Hrutagil locality and additional Messinian-aged trichopteran larval cases from the Stafholt locality. The Hrutagil fauna includes representatives of Cladocera (Crustacea: Branchiopoda) and seven insect orders, including several morphotypes of the orders Plecoptera, Dermaptera, Hemiptera (Cercopoidea, Aphididae), Coleoptera, Hymenoptera, Trichoptera (Drusinae), and Diptera (Bibionidae). Previous studies on the Miocene of Iceland have been based principally on pollen analysis and the macrobotanical record with little attention paid to other aspects of the island's palaeontology. This study provides the first comprehensive systematic description of Miocene arthropods from the northern North Atlantic region and offers the opportunity for a rare glimpse into the late Cenozoic arthropod fauna of Iceland in the context of transatlantic migration and palaeobiogeography and the onset of major global cooling events.

Stimulation of gastrointestinal tract maturation is 1 of the many benefits of human milk. Human milk oligosaccharides (HMOs) are abundant in human milk and are reported to promote enterocyte differentiation in vitro. The objective of this study was to assess the impact of 3 predominant HMOs on multiple aspects of enterocyte maturation in vitro. Ranging from crypt-like to differentiated enterocytes, we used the well-characterized intestinal cell lines HT-29 and Caco-2Bbe to model early and late stages of differentiation, respectively. With this model of the crypt-villus axis made up of preconfluent HT-29, preconfluent Caco-2Bbe, and postconfluent Caco-2Bbe cultures, we characterized the impact of lacto-N-neotetraose (LNnT), 2'-fucosyllactose (2'FL), and 6'-sialyllactose on epithelial cell kinetics and function. All 3 HMOs dose-dependently inhibited cell proliferation in undifferentiated HT-29 and Caco-2Bbe cultures (P < 0.05). In contrast to previous reports, only treatment with 2'FL at concentrations similar to human milk increased alkaline phosphatase activity by 31% (P = 0.044) in HT-29 cultures and increased sucrase activity by 54% (P = 0.005) in well-differentiated Caco-2Bbe cultures. LNnT at concentrations similar to that reported for human milk increased transepithelial resistance by 21% (P = 0.002) in well-differentiated Caco-2Bbe cells. In summary, all 3 HMOs reduced cell proliferation in an epithelial cell model of the crypt-villus axis. However, effects on differentiation, digestive function, and epithelial barrier function differed between the HMOs tested. These results suggest differential roles for specific HMOs in maturation of the gastrointestinal tract.

Many low-birth-weight infants experience failure to thrive. The amino acid leucine stimulates protein synthesis in skeletal muscle of the neonate, but less is known about the effects of the leucine metabolite β-hydroxy-β-methylbutyrate (HMB). To determine the effects of HMB on protein synthesis and the regulation of translation initiation and degradation pathways, overnight-fasted neonatal pigs were infused with HMB at 0, 20, 100, or 400 μmol·kg body wt−1·h−1 for 1 h (HMB 0, HMB 20, HMB 100, or HMB 400). Plasma HMB concentrations increased with infusion and were 10, 98, 316, and 1,400 nmol/ml in the HMB 0, HMB 20, HMB 100, and HMB 400 pigs. Protein synthesis rates in the longissimus dorsi (LD), gastrocnemius, soleus, and diaphragm muscles, lung, and spleen were greater in HMB 20 than in HMB 0, and in the LD were greater in HMB 100 than in HMB 0. HMB 400 had no effect on protein synthesis. Eukaryotic initiation factor (eIF)4E·eIF4G complex formation and ribosomal protein S6 kinase-1 and 4E-binding protein-1 phosphorylation increased in LD, gastrocnemius, and soleus muscles with HMB 20 and HMB 100 and in diaphragm with HMB 20. Phosphorylation of eIF2α and elongation factor 2 and expression of system A transporter (SNAT2), system L transporter (LAT1), muscle RING finger 1 protein (MuRF1), muscle atrophy F-box (atrogin-1), and microtubule-associated protein light chain 3 (LC3-II) were unchanged. Results suggest that supplemental HMB enhances protein synthesis in skeletal muscle of neonates by stimulating translation initiation.

Bees of the family Halictidae (Apoidea: Anthophila) have three pairs of thick, bundled muscles that are circular to subcircular in cross section within the first metasomal segment, as revealed by micro-CT scanning of 16 species in 15 genera of five bee families. In nonhalictids and the basal halictid subfamily Rophitinae, these muscles are planar (flat and sheetlike), typically lying between the anterior air sacs and abdominal wall. In Nomiinae and Halictinae, these muscles, especially the dorsal-ventral pair, bulge into air-sac space, partly enveloped by air-sac membrane. A possible function may be to facilitate metasomal compression and contraction, and thus air flow. The bundled shape of these derived halictid muscles is similar to that of flight muscles, but further data is needed to determine if they are fibrillar, which would suggest a completely different function.

The isomerizations of 3-aza-dihydrobenzvalene to 1,2-dihydropyridine and 3,4-diaza-dihydrobenzvalene to 1,2-dihydropyridazine have been studied using ab initio methods with a multiconfigurational wavefunction. Transition states for both the allowed, conrotatory and forbidden, disrotatory reaction channels were located. The isomerizations occur through the cleavage of a bond pair in the bicyclobutane moiety. The four allowed pathways for 3-aza-dihydrobenzvalene isomerization are nonconcerted forming intermediates with a trans double bond in a six-membered ring: two isomers of (E, Z)-2,4-dihydro-1,6-pyridine and two isomers of (Z, E)-2,4-dihydro-1,6-pyridine. These intermediates can isomerize to the final 1,2-dihydropyridine product through trans double bond rotation with barriers of only a few kcal mol −1 . The allowed pathways have initial activation barriers which range from 35.6 to 42.2 kcal mol −1 . The four forbidden pathways lead directly to the final 1,2-dihydropyridine product in a concerted mechanism with transition states of substantial singlet biradical character. Their activation barriers range from 47.0 to 56.1 kcal mol −1 . The two allowed pathways for 3,4-diaza-dihydrobenzvalene isomerization are also nonconcerted forming two isomers of (E, Z)-3,5-dihydro-1,2-pyridazine intermediates which then isomerize to 1,2-dihydropyridazine through trans double bond rotation with barriers of only about 2 kcal mol −1 . The initial barriers for the two allowed pathways are 32.0 and 41.6 kcal mol −1 with one pathway substantially lower due to steric effects. The two forbidden pathways lead to 3,4-diaza-dihydrobenzvalene through a concerted mechanism and are also highly singlet biradical in character. Their barriers are calculated to be 50.4 and 52.9 kcal mol −1 . For both starting structures, there is a substantial lowering of the allowed barriers relative to the analogous dihydrobenzvalene structure due to the presence of the heteroatom(s).

A documentation and review of weevil rostrum growth is made through examination of the developmental life stages in the rice weevil Sitophilus oryzae (Linnaeus). Histological and morphological examinations are made utilizing light, fluorescent, and electron microscopy. In S. oryzae, rostral tissue begins proliferating in the late 4th instar larva and continues through to the pupal stage, with the majority of rostrum growth taking place in the prepupa. Adult cranial and rostral morphology is also reviewed, focusing on structures that may be pertinent to phylogeny reconstruction. The weevil rostrum is essentially an extension of various head sclerites that are basal to the mouthparts. Therefore, while the mouthparts are fairly similar to other Coleoptera in basic form, the head is markedly different due to its anterior extension. By understanding the more noticeable details of rostrum growth and structure, this study may serve as a foundation for comparative studies of a similar nature and as a basis for beginning research on the genetic nature of rostrum formation and evolution throughout the weevil clade.

Among weevils of the subfamily Baridinae (548 extant genera and ca. 9,000 species), unique prosternal horns and associated sheaths have evolved independently multiple times. These structures are utilized in a unique form of male-male aggression in which males push, rather than overturn as in most other horned beetles, their competitor. Herein we report the first fossils of male Baridinae exhibiting such prosternal horns. Two males recovered from the middle Eocene Green River Formation in northwestern Colorado serve to provide a minimum age (at ca. 47 million years old) for both the origin of horns and its associated form of male-male combat in Baridinae.

Since the erection of the weevil subfamily Baridinae by Schonherr in 1836, no phylogenetic hypothesis using cladistic methods has been proposed for this extraordinarily diverse group. This study provides the first hypothesis for the evolution of Baridinae using phylogenetic methods, including 301 taxa and 113 morphological characters. Despite fairly well-resolved results, indicating paraphyly of nearly all of the currently recognized intrasubfamilial divisions, no change to the current classification is made. Even though groupings are proposed based on the final results, it is believed that more rigorous analyses need to be made prior to a re-evaluation and subsequent alteration of the current classification. © 2010 The Linnean Society of London, Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2010.

Although caddisfly (Trichoptera) cases and adults are fairly abundant in the fossil record, fossils of the immature stages, particularly insights into the pupal stage, are exceedingly rare. Herein we report the discovery of a fossil caddisfly pupa, putatively of the family Vitimotauliidae, from Early Cretaceous deposits in northeastern China. This is the first fossil trichopteran pupa to have been described from China.

The 2016 International Weevil Meeting was held immediately after the International Congress of Entomology (ICE). It built on the topics and content of the 2016 ICE weevil symposium Phylogeny and Evolution of Weevils (Coleoptera: Curculionoidea): A Symposium in Honor of Dr. Guillermo "Willy” Kuschel. Beyond catalyzing research and collaboration, the meeting was intended to serve as a forum for identifying priorities and goals for those who study weevils. The meeting consisted of 46 invited and contributed lectures, discussion sessions and introductory remarks presented by 23 speakers along with eight contributed research posters. These were organized into three convened sessions, each lasting one day: (1) weevil morphology; (2) weevil fossils, biogeography and host/habitat associations; and (3) molecular phylogenetics and classification of weevils. Some of the topics covered included the 1K Weevils Project, major morphological character systems of adult and larval weevils, weevil morphological terminology, prospects for future morphological character discovery, phylogenetic analysis of morphological character data, the current status of weevil molecular phylogenetics and evolution, resources available for phylogenetic and comparative genomic studies of weevils, the weevil fossil record, weevil biogeography and evolution, weevil host plants, evolutionary development of the weevil rostrum, resources available for weevil identification and the current status of and challenges in weevil classification., Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Museo