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An increase in number of motorcycles in Tanzania has resulted in higher rates of motorcycle crashes. The factors associated with the risk of motorcycle crashes include rider characteristics, riding behavior, and riding experience. This study aimed to determine the awareness and practices of commercial motorcyclists regarding motorcycle crash-related risk factors and protective measures in Mbeya, Tanzania. This cross-sectional study targeted 404 commercial motorcyclists in Mbeya, Tanzania. Data were collected using a questionnaire composed of questions on sociodemographic characteristics, and the awareness and practices of motorcyclists regarding motorcycle crash-related risk factors and protective measures. The SPSS computer software version 27 was used for data analysis. For descriptive analysis means, and proportion were used. The outcome variables were level of awareness and degree of practice. Multivariate regression analysis was utilized to analyze how participants’ sociodemographic characteristics influenced their level of awareness and degree of practice. A p-value of less than 0.05 was considered statistically significant. Overall, most (63.4%) participants had a high level of awareness regarding motorcycle crash-related risk factors and protective measures. Whereas, slightly more than half (52.2%) of participants had poor practice. Working experience of

Tsetse flies (Glossina) depend on their olfactory system to identify host, larviposition sites and mates. Previous studies have characterized olfactory organs and evaluated the odorant receptor (OR) expression to host-derived chemicals. However, no studies thus far have investigated the odorant co-receptor (Orco) associated with these olfaction processes in tissues and developmental stages in tsetse flies. In this study, quantitative polymerase chain reaction was done with Glossina morsitans morsitans, Glossina pallidipies and Glossina fuscipes fuscipes tissues (antennae and legs) and developmental stage (larvae and pupae) to quantify Orco expression levels and G. m. morsitans OR genes in G. m. morsitans larvae and pupae. Our findings indicate that expression of Orco were elevated in G. f. fuscipes male antennae and legs relative to G. f. fuscipes female antennae and relative to male antennae in G. m. morsitans and G. pallidipies. However, in female G. m. morsitans antennae, expression of Orco was higher than in female G. pallidipies and G. f. fuscipes. Orco levels were also significantly higher in pupal stages of G. f. fuscipes and G. pallidipies relative to the three larval stages and G. m. morsitans pupae. Two G. m. morsitans OR genes (GmmOR20 and GmmOR28) were highly expressed in G. m. morsitans larvae and pupae respectively. This study demonstrate that the Orco gene was significantly expressed in adult male and female tissues as well as in the developmental stages of Glossina species. The G. m. morsitans OR genes reported in larvae and pupae could mean co-expression of Orco and ORs in developmental stages. These findings pinpointed the olfactory differences that exists amongst G. m. morsitans, G. pallidipies and G. f. fuscipes, and provide valuable information to the probable role of olfactory genes in Glossina contributing further to the understanding of olfactory processes and the evolution of olfactory genes in tsetse flies. Keywords: Glossina, Olfaction, Orco, Odorant receptors, RNA expression

Glossina pallidipes salivary gland hypertrophy virus (GpSGHV; family Hytrosaviridae) is a dsDNA virus exclusively pathogenic to tsetse flies (Diptera; Glossinidae). The 190 kb GpSGHV genome contains 160 open reading frames and encodes more than 60 confirmed proteins. The asymptomatic GpSGHV infection in flies can convert to symptomatic infection that is characterized by overt salivary gland hypertrophy (SGH). Flies with SGH show reduced general fitness and reproductive dysfunction. Although the occurrence of SGH is an exception rather than the rule, G. pallidipes is thought to be the most susceptible to expression of overt SGH symptoms compared to other Glossina species that are largely asymptomatic. Although Glossina salivary glands (SGs) play an essential role in GpSGHV transmission, the functions of the salivary components during the virus infection are poorly understood. In this study, we used mass spectrometry to study SG proteomes of G. pallidipes and G. m. morsitans, two Glossina model species that exhibit differential GpSGHV pathologies (high and low incidence of SGH, respectively). A total of 540 host proteins were identified, of which 23 and 9 proteins were significantly up- and down-regulated, respectively, in G. pallidipes compared to G. m. morsitans. Whereas 58 GpSGHV proteins were detected in G. pallidipes F1 progenies, only 5 viral proteins were detected in G. m. morsitans. Unlike in G. pallidipes, qPCR assay did not show any significant increase in virus titers in G. m. morsitans F1 progenies, confirming that G. m. morsitans is less susceptible to GpSGHV infection and replication compared to G. pallidipes. Based on our results, we speculate that in the case of G. pallidipes GpSGHV employs a repertoire of host intracellular signaling pathways for successful infection. In the case of G. m. morsitans, antiviral responses appeared to be dominant. These results are useful for designing additional tools to investigate the Glossina-GpSGHV interactions.