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Study design:Case study in handbiking under competition conditions.Objective:To investigate exercise-induced, metabolic, pulmonary, cardiovascular and energetic reactions of a paraplegic athlete during a city marathon.Setting:City marathon Cologne, Germany.Subject:We tested a 27-year-old male athlete from the German national team. The handicap of the athlete was a complete traumatic spinal cord injury ASIA/IMSOP Grade A at the level of the fourth thoratic vertebra (Th4).Method:In the competition, the athlete used his own race handbike whose crank system had been exchanged for a power measurement system with registering option. For measuring ventilatory gas parameters during exercise, a portable spirometric system was used. The athlete managed to finish the marathon race in 1:48:54 h.Results:The mean oxygen uptake (\[Vdot]O2) during the marathon was 1580 ml/min, with a maximum value of 2535 ml/min. The mean heart frequency was 137 bpm with a maximum of 157 bpm. During the race the mean energy consumption was 463 kcal/h with a maximum of 758 kcal/h. Prior to the race, the blood lactate value was 2.9 mmol/l; after 10 km 4.4 mmol/l; after 20 km 2.9 mmol/l, and after 30 km 2.9 mmol/l.Conclusion:Competition-oriented handbikers should concentrate on exercise units of long duration at low intensities – like marathon runners or cyclists – in order to improve their aerobic performance capacity. However, it has to be pointed out that paraplegic athletes develop relatively high metabolic intensities in competition and that the variability of their physiological parameters is considerably high.Sponsorship:The study was supported by the Federal Institute of Sport Science VF 0407/04/04/2001, Germany.Spinal Cord (2006) 44, 211–216. doi:10.1038/sj.sc.3101845; published online 20 September 2005 [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR] more...

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the short term effects of tennis training on lipid metabolism and to find out if a typical tennis training programme has positive longitudinal effects on cardiovascular risk factors in recreational players. METHODS: The experimental design consisted of an exercise study and a subsequent longitudinal study. In the exercise study the short term metabolic effects of a two hour technically orientated tennis training (TT) session and a running intensive tennis training (RIT) session were investigated in 16 recreational tennis players (eight men: 46 (SD 7) years, 177 (6) cm, 81 (10) kg; and eight women: 44 (5) years, 165 (5) cm, 64 (6) kg). In the longitudinal study the long term effects of a six week RIT programme in 22 players (11 men and 11 women) of similar characteristics were compared with those in 16 control subjects (eight men and eight women). The results of the exercise study (higher lipolytic activity and cardiopulmonary demand, as well as acceptance by the players) led to the RIT method being chosen for all training sessions in the longitudinal study. RESULTS: In RIT, significantly higher values for heart rate (148 (SD 10) v 124 (11) beats/minute) and lactate (2.8 (1.1) v 1.5 (0.6) mmol/l), significantly higher post exercise concentrations of serum glycerol (0.37 (0.15) v 0.29 (0.14) mmol/l) and high density lipoprotein cholesterol (1.31 (0.55) v 1.20 (0.50) mmol/l) and a higher acceptance than in TT (15 of the 16 players preferred RIT) were found. During the six week tennis training programme the changes in body weight (-1.41 (1.56) v 0.00 (1.50) kg) and anaerobic threshold (1.04 (0.84) v -0.08 (0.92) km/h) were significantly different between the training and control group. In the training group several parameters of the lipoprotein profile tended to change in an antiatherosclerotic direction. CONCLUSIONS: The results indicate that typical regular tennis training influences cardiovascular risk factors in a positive manner and can be suggested as an attractive alternative to other current health orientated sports programmes. A more frequent use of running intensive exercises during tennis training is recommended. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER] more...

The neurotransmitter serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT) has been shown to modulate various physiological and psychological functions such as fatigue. Altered regulation of the serotonergic system has been suggested to play a role in response to exercise stress. In the present study, the influence was investigated of acute endurance exercise and short-term increase in the amount of training on the concentrations of the 5-HT precursor tryptophan (TRP), of prolactin (PRL) and of branched-chain amino acids (BCAA) in the blood, as well as on the binding of [3H]ketanserin to the serotonin-2A (5-HT2A) receptors on platelets. Nine healthy endurance-trained men were tested the day before (I) and after (II) a 9-day training programme. Samples of venous blood were drawn after an overnight fast and following 5 h of cycling. Fasted and post-exercise plasma concentrations of free TRP, BCAA and free TRP:BCAA ratio did not differ between I and II. A significant decrease of plasma BCAA ( P < 0.01) and significant augmentations of plasma free TRP, free TRP:BCAA ratio and PRL ( P < 0.01) were found post-exercise. The increase in plasma PRL was smaller in II compared with I. Acute endurance exercise reduced the density of platelet 5-HT2A receptor [3H]ketanserin binding sites at I and II ( P < 0.05). The basal density of the binding sites and the affinity of [3H]ketanserin for these binding sites were unaffected by an increase in the amount of training. The present results support the hypothesis that acute endurance exercise may increase 5-HT availability. This was reflected in the periphery by increased concentration of the 5-HT precursor free TRP, by increased plasma PRL concentration, and by a reduction of 5-HT2A receptors on platelets. It remains to be resolved whether these alterations in the periphery occur in parallel with an increase in the availability of 5-HT in the brain. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR] more...

To investigate amino acid metabolism during endurance exercise as well as its influence on plasma prolactin (PRL) we subjected eight nationally ranked tennis players (mean(s.d.) age 25.6(2.8) years, mean(s.d.) weight 83.9(5.7) kg, mean(s.d.) height 184.4(4.6) cm) to 4h of continuous tournament tennis. Venous and capillary blood samples were taken before and after the exercise. Amino acids were measured by HPLC-fluorescence detection as o-phthalaldehyde derivatives; nonesterified fatty acids (NEFA), ammonia, total protein, glucose insulin and PRL by enzymatic methods. Exercise caused a decline of branched-chain amino acids (BCAA) by 28(14)%. Elevation of NEFA resulted in a significant mean(s.d.) increase of free tryptophan (TRP) (9.7(2.6) [pmol/microliter] vs 17.8(6.4) [pmol/microliter]. The mean(s.d.) ratio of free TRP:BCAA increased by 165%(90) which favours entry of free TRP into the brain. However, PRL did not change significantly. We conclude that during long-lasting interval sports BCAA contribute as energy substrates. Alterations in competition of amino acids at the blood-brain barrier favour entry of free TRP into the brain. PRL changes cannot be explained by the increase in plasma level of free TRP or the ratio of free TRP:BCAA. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR] more...

Acute physical exercise (APE) induces an increase in the individual alpha peak frequency (iAPF), a cortical parameter associated with neural information processing speed. The aim of this study was to further scrutinize the influence of different APE intensities on post-exercise iAPF as well as its time course after exercise cessation. 95 healthy young (18-35 years) subjects participated in two randomized controlled experiments (EX1 and EX2). In EX1, all participants completed a graded exercise test (GXT) until exhaustion and were randomly allocated into different delay groups (immediately 0, 30, 60 and 90 min after GXT). The iAPF was determined before, immediately after as well as after the group-specific delay following the GXT. In EX2, participants exercised for 35 min at either 45-50%, 65-70% or 85-90% of their maximum heart rate (HR max ). The iAPF was determined before, immediately after as well as 20 min after exercise cessation. In EX1, the iAPF was significantly increased immediately after the GXT in all groups. This effect was not any more detectable after 30 min following exercise cessation. In EX2, a significant increase of the iAPF was found only after high-intensity (85-90% HR max ) exercise. The results indicate intense or exhaustive physical exercise is required to induce a transient increase in the iAPF that persists about 30 min following exercise cessation. Based on these findings, further research will have to scrutinize the behavioral implications associated with iAPF modulations following exercise., (Copyright © 2018. Published by Elsevier B.V.) more...

Long-term isolation has been reported to have impact on psycho-physiological performance in humans. As part of the 520 days isolation study (MARS500, n=6) from June 3rd 2010 to November 4th 2011, this study aimed to show that stress caused by isolation and confinement is mirrored in cortical activity and cortisol levels and that exercise is a valid countermeasure. Cortical activity was measured by electroencephalography (EEG) pre- and post-moderate exercise every two weeks, salivary cortisol was taken every 60 days. Data show a decrease of global cortical activity, in both alpha- and beta-activity (p<.05-p<.001), and an increase of salivary cortisol (p<.05-p<.001), during the isolation, indicating that isolation acts as a chronic stressor with impact on cortical activity and cortisol levels. Moderate exercise leads to an increase (p<.01) in cortical activity. Therefore, during long-term space missions the factor isolation must be kept in mind as the reduction of cortical activity and the heightened stress level could impair performance. However moderate exercise might be able to counteract this impairment., (Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.) more...

Balance is a crucial component in numerous every day activities such as locomotion. Previous research has reported distinct changes in cortical theta activity during transient balance instability. However, there remains little understanding of the neural mechanisms underlying continuous balance control. This study aimed to investigate cortical theta activity during varying difficulties of continuous balance tasks, as well as examining the relationship between theta activity and balance performance. 37 subjects completed nine balance tasks with different levels of surface stability and base of support. Throughout the balancing task, electroencephalogram (EEG) was recorded from 32 scalp locations. ICA-based artifact rejection was applied and spectral power was analyzed in the theta frequency band. Theta power increased in the frontal, central, and parietal regions of the cortex when balance tasks became more challenging. In addition, fronto-central and centro-parietal theta power correlated with balance performance. This study demonstrates the involvement of the cerebral cortex in maintaining upright posture during continuous balance tasks. Specifically, the results emphasize the important role of frontal and parietal theta oscillations in balance control., (Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.) more...

Despite modern imaging techniques, assessing and localizing changes in brain activity during whole-body exercise is still challenging. Using an active electroencephalography (EEG) system in combination with source localization algorithms, this study aimed to localize brain cortical oscillations patterns in the motor cortex and to correlate these with surface electromyography (EMG)-detected muscular activity during pedaling exercise. Eight subjects performed 2-min isokinetic (90 rpm) cycling bouts at intensities ranging from 1 to 5 Wkg(-1) body mass on a cycle ergometer. These bouts were interspersed by a minimum of 2 min of passive rest to limit to development of peripheral muscle fatigue. Brain cortical activity within the motor cortex was analyzed using a 32-channel active EEG system combined with source localization algorithms. EMG activity was recorded from seven muscles on each lower limb. EEG and EMG activity revealed comparatively stable oscillations across the different exercise intensities. More importantly, the oscillations in cortical activity within the motor cortex were significantly correlated with EMG activity during the high-intensity cycling bouts. This study demonstrates that it is possible to localize oscillations in brain cortical activity during moderate- to high-intensity cycling exercise using EEG in combination with source localization algorithms, and that these oscillations match the activity of the active muscles in time and amplitude. Results of this study might help to further evaluate the effects of central vs. peripheral fatigue during exercise., (Copyright © 2012 IBRO. All rights reserved.) more...

The influence of acidosis on brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) was examined by buffering pH changes during 10 min of continuous low intensity (LIE) and following high intensity cycling exercise to exhaustion (HIE). 11 athletes participated in 2 trials separated by 1 week. Individuals received either a placebo infusion (isotonic saline) or an isotonic sodium bicarbonate infusion before and during exercise. Blood samples were drawn at rest, after LIE and after HIE, as well as 3, 6, 10 and 15 min post exercise. During placebo trial, HIE induced a profound decrease (p<0.01) of capillary blood bicarbonate concentration (HCO3-), pH, base excess (BE) and pCO2. Higher (p<0.01) HCO3-, pH and BE were found during bicarbonate infusion and post exercise in comparison to the placebo trial. Exercise induced an identical increase of blood lactate concentration in both trials. Serum BDNF concentration was increased (p<0.01) at the end of HIE and remained elevated until 3 min post exercise in both trials. The present study suggests that during HIE lactate might have an acidosis-independed impact on BDNF secretion because buffering of blood gases, that attenuate the fall of pH but not the accumulation of lactic acid, failed to alter the exercise-induced increase of BDNF., (© Georg Thieme Verlag KG Stuttgart · New York.) more...

While the effects of exercise on brain cortical activity from pre-to post-exercise have been thoroughly evaluated, few studies have investigated the change in activity during exercise. As such, it is not clear to what extent changes in exercise intensity influence brain cortical activity. Furthermore, due to the difficulty in using brain-imaging methods during complex whole-body movements like cycling, it is unclear to what extent the activity in specific brain areas is altered with incremental exercise intensity over time. Latterly, active electroencephalography (EEG) electrodes combined with source localization methods allow for the assessment of brain activity, measured as EEG current density, within specific cortical regions. The present study aimed to investigate the application of this method during exercise on a cycle ergometer, and to investigate the effect of increasing exercise intensity on the magnitude and location of any changes in electrocortical current density. Subjects performed an incremental cycle ergometer test until subjective exhaustion. Current density of the EEG recordings during each test stage, as well as before and after exercise, was determined. Spatial changes in current density were localized using low-resolution brain electromagnetic tomography (LORETA) to three regions of interest; the primary motor cortex, primary sensory cortex and prefrontal cortex, and were expressed relative to current density within the local lobe. It was demonstrated that the relative current density of the primary motor cortex was intensified with increasing exercise intensity, whereas activity of the primary sensory cortex and that of the prefrontal cortex were not altered with exercise. The results indicate that the combined active EEG/LORETA method allows for the recording of brain cortical activity during complex movements and incremental exercise. These findings indicate that primary motor cortex activity is elevated with incremental exercise intensity during a whole-body movement, like cycling., (Copyright © 2011 IBRO. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.) more...

Blood neurotrophins like insulin-like growth factor (IGF-1) and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) are discussed to mediate health benefits of physical activity in humans. The aim of the study was to analyze the training effects of moderate endurance training (Em) and strength training with high loads (Sh) on blood plasma concentrations of IGF-1 and BDNF in humans. Venous blood samples were obtained from 27 healthy students, randomly assigned to an Em, Sh, and a control group, before and after a 12-week training intervention. Sh resulted in an increase in isometric (14.5%) and dynamic (8.3%) strength of the knee extensor muscles in the Sh group and Em led to a significant increase in the endurance performance in the Em group (p<0.05). IGF-1 basal plasma concentrations decreased (p<0.05) after the intervention in all groups. There were no significant changes for BDNF. Despite specific functional adaptations induced by Em and Sh there are no correspondingly different adaptations in the basal blood concentrations of the neurotrophins IGF-1 and BDNF. Additionally, exercise per se does not result in changes in basal plasma concentrations of BDNF, suggesting that the mode of the exercise programme is a decisive factor. more...

The present study investigated the effects of exercise on the serum concentrations of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1), prolactin (PRL) and cortisol (COR) in 11 chronically spinal cord-injured athletes. In these subjects BDNF concentration at rest was sixfold higher compared with the concentrations reported earlier in able-bodied persons, while IGF-1, PRL and COR were within normal range. Ten minutes of moderate intensity handbiking (54% of the maximal heart rate) during a warm-up period (W) induced an increase (P<0.05) of BDNF of approximately 1.5-fold from basal level at rest, while a decrease to basal level was found after an immediately succeeding handbiking time trial (89% of the maximal heart rate) over the marathon distance of 42 km (M). An increase (P<0.01) of serum IGF-1 was found after W and this levels remained elevated (P<0.01) until the end of M. W had no significant effects on the serum PRL and COR, however, M induced an increase (P<0.01) of both hormones. This is the first study showing elevated BDNF concentrations at rest in spinal cord-injured athletes. Furthermore, short moderate intensity handbiking but not immediately following long lasting high intensity handbiking further increases serum BDNF concentrations. IGF-1 response to exercise differs to BDNF response as this neuroplasticity-related protein remains elevated during the long lasting physical demand with high intensity. The augmented PRL concentration suggests that a possible mechanism by which exercise promotes neuroplasticity might be the activation of neural serotonergic pathways as 5-HT is the main PRL releasing factor. Elevated COR concentrations after M are unlikely to be deleterious to neuroplasticity as COR concentrations remain within the physiological range. The present study suggests that exercise might be beneficial to enhance neuroprotection and neuroplasticity, thereby improving recovery after spinal cord injury. more...

Intense exercise and sleep deprivation affect the amount of homeostatically regulated slow wave sleep in the subsequent sleep period. Since brain energy metabolism plays a decisive role in the regulation of behavioral states, we determined the concentrations of nucleotides and nucleosides: phosphocreatine, creatine, ATP, ADP, AMP, adenosine, and inosine after moderate and exhaustive treadmill exercise as well as 3 and 5 h of sleep deprivation and sleep in the rat brain using the freeze-clamp technique. High intensity exercise resulted in a significant increase of the sleep-promoting substance adenosine. In contrast, following sleep, inosine and adenosine levels declined considerably, with an accompanied increase of ADP after 3 h and ATP after 5 h. Following 3 h and 5 h sleep deprivation, ADP and ATP did not differ significantly, whereas inosine increased during the 3 and 5-h period. The concentrations of AMP, creatine and phosphocreatine remained unchanged between experimental conditions. The present results are in agreement with findings from other authors and suggest that depletion of cerebral energy stores and accumulation of the sleep promoting substance adenosine after high intensity exercise may play a key role in homeostatic sleep regulation, and that sleep may play an essential role in replenishment of high-energy compounds. more...

Modern technical and biochemical methods allow investigation of hemodynamic and metabolic responses of the human brain during muscular work. Following a general introduction to the topic results from selected studies on endogenous opioid peptides, pain sensitivity and psyche, regional cerebral blood flow and cerebral glucose metabolism, amino acid transport across the blood-brain barrier, impact of physical work on the serotonergic system, influence of oxygen partial pressure on neurotransmitters and hormones during exercise, role of the brain as performance limiting factor as well as age-related changes in cerebral blood flow and hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal/-gonadal axis function will be presented. more...

The aim of this study was to investigate hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPAA) and -gonadal (HPGA) axis responses to post-exercise (30 min at 65% VO2max) combined corticotrophin, luteinizing hormone and thyrotrophin releasing hormone challenge (0.7 microg/ kg body mass) in elderly distance runners (DR; age: 68.9+/-4.2 year) and sedentary individuals (SI; age: 69.1+/-2.6 year). Plasma cortisol, growth hormone, prolactin, luteinizing hormone, follicle stimulating hormone and total testosterone (T) concentrations pre- and post-exercise as well as in response to stimulation did not differ between DR and SI. Plasma adrenocorticotropic hormone returned to pre-exercise level in DR 60 min and in SI 90 min post-stimulation. Free T was lower in DR at all time points. Our results do not support the notion of altered releasing hormone-stimulable HPAA and HPGA synthesis-secretion capacity in elderly males after endurance training. more...

Effects of carbohydrate (CHO) and caffeine (CAF) in amounts typically found in sports-drinks on plasma metabolites, neuroendocrine responses and performance in tennis were investigated in 8 skilled players during a 4 h tennis match. In 3 trials players ingested a placebo (T I), a CAF (T II) or a CHO (T III) drink during court changeover. Total intake consisted of 2.81 of fluid, supplemented with 243 g CHO or with 364 mg CAF, respectively. Self-perceived "drive/motivation" and post-exercise hitting accuracy were evaluated. Plasma free fatty acids increments were lower after CHO while CAF administration had no effect. In all trials, plasma branched-chain amino acids (BCAA) concentrations decreased as a result of exercise; however, no differences were observed between trials. Plasma free tryptophan (TRP) to BCAA ratio was augmented in T I and T II while no change from basal level was found in T III. Plasma prolactin (PRL) and growth hormone (HGH) concentrations after cessation of exercise were lower in T III compared with T I and T II. No main effect for treatment was found for plasma ACTH, COR and β-endorphin. Neither supplement affected number of won games. We conclude that CAF ingestion did not affect the plasma large neutral amino acids concentrations, neuroendocrine system responses or tennis performance. Lower plasma free TRP/BCAA ratio induced by CHO occurred concomitant with reduced plasma PRL and HGH concentrations, suggesting that the brain monoaminergic system might be affected if CHO-containing drinks are consumed during tennis match play. However, the data do not point towards an ergogenic value of reduced plasma free TRP/BCAA ratio. more...

Objective: Metabolic and ergogenic effects of carbohydrate and caffeine concentrations, common in commercial available beverages, were investigated in 16 tournament players (8 males and 8 females) during a 4 hrs interrupted tennis match (30 min rest after 150 min)., Methods: On three double-blind occasions players ingested a placebo (PLA), carbohydrate (CHO) or caffeine drink (CAF) at court changeover and during the resting period. In men (women) total intake consisted of 2.8 l (2.0 l) fluid, supplemented with 243 g (182 g) carbohydrates (CHO) or with 364 mg (260 mg) caffeine (CAF), respectively. Postexercise all players performed a ball-machine test (BMT) and a tennis-sprint test (TST)., Results: During match play blood glucose (GLU) was higher in CHO and did not differ between CAF and PLA. Immediately after the resting period GLU temporary declined in CHO and PLA, while no significant changes occurred in CAF. Increases of serum FFA and glycerol as well as the decrease of insulin were similar during the PLA and CAF trials and less pronounced in CHO. Postexercise urine concentrations of epinephrine and caffeine were significantly higher in CAF. Perception ratings and hitting accuracy (BMT) were not affected by treatment. CHO resulted in higher blood lactate levels during match play and a better post-exercise sprint performance (TST). Under CAF women won significantly more games than during both other treatments., Conclusions: CHO enhances tennis-specific running-speed but has no ergogenic effect on tennis performance under the conditions of our study. CAF improves glucose homeostasis at the beginning of work load after rest and may increase tennis success in women. more...

The potential of exercise-induced changes in peripheral amino acids to alter blood prolactin levels through a serotonergic system modification was investigated in 8 male athletes. In two trials, subjects (N = 8) exercised on a cycle ergometer for 5 hr. The intensity of exercise corresponded to 55% VO2max (T55) or 75% VO2max (T75), respectively. In each trial, each subject received a 25-g energy bar (111 kcal) every 60 min, as well as 300 ml of a 6% carbohydrate solution (90 kcal) every 30 min of exercise duration. Plasma glucose and insulin declined (p < or = .05) in both trials during exercise. Ammonia was augmented (p < or = .05) above the baseline concentration after 120 min in both trials. During the last 2 hr of exercise, plasma free fatty acids were higher (p < or = .05) in T75 than in T55. During this time, the plasma free TRP/BCAA ratio was also augmented (p < or = .05) in T75, while no change was induced in T55. Plasma prolactin did not change in T55, while an increase (p < or = .05) was found in T75. The findings may further support the hypothesis that during endurance exercise changes in peripheral amino acid concentration may influence prolactin response via serotonergic system modifications. more...

Neuroendrocrine and substrate responses were investigated in eight male athletes during inhalation of either 100% O2 (HE), 14% O2 (HO) or normoxio gas (NO) before, during and after 60 min of cycle ergometry at the same absolute work rate. Concentrations of prolactin (PRL), growth hormone (GH), testosterone (T), adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), cortisol (COR), adrenalin (A), noradrenalin (NA), insulin (INS), ammonia (NH3), free fatty acids, serotonin (5-HT), total protein, branched-chain amino acids (BCAA) and free tryptophan (free TRP) were determined in venous blood and lactate concentration [LA-], partial pressure of oxygen (PO2), oxygen saturation (SO2), partial pressure of carbon dioxide and pH in capillary blood. The PO2 and SO2 were augmented in HE and decreased in HO (P < or = 0.01). In HO and NO no significant changes were found for any other parameter during 30 min of rest prior to exercise. In HE, PRL increased by about 400% during this time, while NA declined (P < or = 0.01). Heart rate (HR) and [LA-] were higher during exercise in HO (P < or = 0.01). In all trials, NH3, NA, A, T, GH and ACTH increased during exercise (P < or = 0.01), while BCAA and INS declined. In comparison to NO and HE, increases of NA, A, GH, COR and ACTH were higher in HO (P < or = 0.01). The PRL in NO and COR in NO and HE did not change significantly. In HE, after the initial increase at rest, PRL declined during exercise but remained higher than in HO. Higher values for NA, A, GH, COR and ACTH in HO were likely to have reflected an augmented relative exercise intensity. Our results showed that PRL but no other hormone increased during acute exposure to hyperoxia. This PRL release was independent of exercise stress and greater than PRL augmentation during hypoxia, which was related to a higher relative exercise intensity as indicated by [LA-] and HR. Responses of plasma NH3, BCAA, free TRP and 5-HT could not explain PRL augmentation induced by the increment in blood SO2 during hyperoxia. more...