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Comprehensive but interpretable assessment of the environmental performance of diets involves choosing a set of appropriate indicators. Current knowledge and data gaps on the origin of dietary foodstuffs restrict use of indicators relying on site-specific information. This Personal View summarises commonly used indicators for assessing the environmental performance of diets, briefly outlines their benefits and drawbacks, and provides recommendations on indicator choices for actors across multiple fields involved in activities that include the environmental assessment of diets. We then provide recommendations on indicator choices for actors across multiple fields involved in activities that use environmental assessments, such as health and nutrition experts, policy makers, decision makers, and private-sector and public-sector sustainability officers. We recommend that environmental assessment of diets should include indicators for at least the five following areas: climate change, biosphere integrity, blue water consumption, novel entities, and impacts on natural resources (especially wild fish stocks), to capture important environmental trade-offs. If more indicators can be handled in the assessment, indicators to capture impacts related to land use quantity and quality and green water consumption should be used. For ambitious assessments, indicators related to biogeochemical flows, stratospheric ozone depletion, and energy use can be added.

Tvåskaliga blötdjur (bivalver) som blåmusslor (Mytilus edulis) och ostron (Ostrea edulis) är nyckelarter i kustekosystem och de bidrar både till ökad biologisk mångfald genom att skapa livsmiljöer för andra organismer och till flera andra viktiga ekosystemtjänster. Under de senaste åren har både Mytilus- och Ostrea-bankar minskat i antal och omfattning i Europa, och det finns också starka indikationer på en liknande situation för Mytilus i Sverige. För Ostrea saknas generellt kunskap om populationsstorlekar, vilket gör bedömningar av populationsutveckling problematiskt. Bevarandeåtgärder som beståndsförstärkning och -restaurering ökar därför i omfattning allt eftersom biodiversitet förloras, och det finns ett växande intresse för att återställa habitat skapade av musslor och ostron på många platser i världen. Marina arter med hög spridningspotential, som till exempel Mytilus och i viss mån Ostrea, har historiskt setts som osannolika att uppvisa populationsgenetiska skillnader mellan olika geogra-fiska områden. Forskning har dock på senare tid visat att spridningsbarriärer orsakade av till exempel strömförhållanden eller skillnader i miljö är vanliga och kan resultera i genetiskt differentierade subpopulationer på geografiskt sett små skalor. Detta innebär att kunskap om populationsgenetiska mönster kan bidra med värdefull information för etablering av effektiva förvaltningsstrategier för olika arter, till exempel genom analys av populationsstrukturer och spridningsmekanismer. Exempelvis är populationsgenetiska strukturer, lokala mönster i rekrytering (det vill säga bottenfällning av nya musslor eller ostron) och spridning av larver av stort värde för att säkerställa en god genetisk bas för bevarande av källpopulationer och för att bibehålla en god rekryteringsbas och spridning av nya individer. För både Mytilus och Ostrea saknas idag kunskapsunderlag om grundläggande populationsgenetiska strukturer, liksom om lokalrekryteringsmönster och larvspridning, varför en bed, Bivalve molluscs such as mussels (Mytilus edulis) and oysters (Ostrea edulis) are keystone species in coastal ecosystems, and contribute to increased biodiversity by creating habitats for other or-ganisms and to several other important ecosystem services. In recent years, both Mytilus- and Ostrea-beds have been reported to be in decline in Europe, and there are strong indications of a similar situation also for Mytilus in Sweden. For Ostrea, there is a general lack of knowledge about population sizes, which makes assessments of population development problematic. Con-servation measures such as stock enhancement and restoration are therefore increasing as biodi-versity is lost, and there is a growing interest in restoring habitats created by mussels and oysters in many parts of the world. Marine species with high dispersal potential, such as Mytilus and to some extent Ostrea, have historically been thought unlikely to show genetic differentiation on local scales. However, it is becoming increasingly acknowledged that dispersal barriers caused by, for example, current conditions or lack of suitable habitats, are common and can result in genetically differentiated subpopulations on geographically small scales. This means that knowledge of genetic structures can contribute valuable information for the establishment of effective management strategies for different species, for example through analysis of genetic diversity and dispersal mechanisms. For example, knowledge of population structures, local recruitment patterns and dispersal of larvae are of great value to ensure a good genetic basis for the conservation of source- and sink populations and to maintain a good recruitment base and spread of new individuals. For both Mytilus and Ostrea, information about genetic structures, recruitment patterns and larval dispersal is lacking in Sweden, hence limiting the possibilities of assessing the conservation value of different bivalve beds.This report presents the work don, C731

Tvåskaliga blötdjur (bivalver) som blåmusslor (Mytilus edulis) och ostron (Ostrea edulis) är nyck-elarter i kustekosystem och de bidrar både till ökad biologisk mångfald genom att skapa livsmiljöer för andra organismer och till flera andra viktiga ekosystemtjänster. Under de senaste åren har både Mytilus- och Ostrea-bankar minskat i antal och omfattning i Europa, och det finns också starka indikationer på en liknande situation för Mytilus i Sverige. För Ostrea saknas generellt kunskap om populationsstorlekar, vilket gör bedömningar av populationsutveckling problema-tisk. Bevarandeåtgärder som beståndsförstärkning och -restaurering ökar därför i omfattning allt eftersom biodiversitet förloras, och det finns ett växande intresse för att återställa habitat skap-ade av musslor och ostron på många platser i världen. Den hotbildsanalys som genomförts av OSPAR för Mytilus- och Ostrea-bankar i Europa indikerar att den primära orsaken till förlust av bivalvbankar i Europa är överexploatering och habitatför-lust, samt sjukdomsutbrott orsakade av patogener. Svenska bivalvbestånd är dock mer eller mindre förskonade från dessa påverkansfaktorer. Andra faktorer kan dock också påverka populationsutvecklingen. Till exempel finns det en oro bland förvaltande myndigheter att det invasiva stillahavsostronet kommer att försämra förutsättningarna för livskraftiga bestånd av Mytilus och Ostrea i Sverige. Sammantaget finns det goda skäl till att utforska vilka möjliga alternativ som finns för förstärkning av Mytilus- och Ostrea-populationerna och vilka metoder som skulle kunna användas om stillahavsostron visar sig vara ett hot mot våra inhemska bivalvpopulationer. Syftet med detta projekt var därför att ta fram ett kunskapsunderlag för utformning av förvaltningsmodeller för skydd av Sveriges populationer av Mytilus och Ostrea. En del i detta arbete utgörs av kunskaps-byggande kring möjliga åtgärder kopplat mot restaurering av bivalvbankar genom till exempel bortrensning av stillahavsostr, Bivalve molluscs such as mussels (Mytilus edulis) and oysters (Ostrea edulis) are key species in coastal ecosystems, and contribute to increased biodiversity by creating habitats for other organ-isms and to several other important ecosystem services. In recent years, both Mytilus- and Os-trea-beds have been reported to be in decline in Europe, and there are strong indications of a similar situation also for Mytilus in Sweden. For Ostrea, there is a general lack of knowledge about population sizes, which makes assessments of population development problematic. Conservation measures such as stock enhancement and restoration are therefore increasing as biodiversity is lost, and there is a growing interest in restoring habitats created by mussels and oysters in many parts of the world. The threat analysis carried out by OSPAR for Mytilus- and Ostrea-beds in Europe indicates that the primary cause of loss of bivalves in Europe is overexploitation and habitat loss, as well as disease outbreaks caused by pathogens. The Swedish bivalve populations, however, are more or less spared from these impact factors. Nevertheless, other factors can also affect population de-velopment. For example, there is concern among management authorities that the invasive Pacific oyster may impact the populations of Mytilus and Ostrea in Sweden negatively. All in all, there are good reasons to explore the possible alternatives for supporting the development of the Mytilus- and Ostrea-populations, and also methods that could be used if the Pacific oyster prove to impact the native bivalve populations negatively. The purpose of this project was therefore to produce a knowledge base for the establishment of management models for the pro-tection of Sweden's populations of Mytilus and Ostrea. Part of this work include knowledge building, both theoretical and practical, about possible restoration measures of bivalve beds, e.g. removal of Pacific oysters or stock enhancement. To summarise, a number of, C370

Tvåskaliga blötdjur (bivalver) som blåmusslor (Mytilus edulis) och ostron (Ostrea edulis) är nyckelarter i kustekosystem, och de bidrar både till ökad biologisk mångfald genom att skapa livsmiljöer för andra organismer och till flera andra viktiga ekosystemtjänster. Under de senaste åren har både Mytilus- och Ostrea-bankar minskat i antal och omfattning i Europa, och det finns också starka indikationer på en liknande situation för Mytilus i Sverige. För Ostrea saknas generellt kunskap om populationsstorlekar, vilket gör bedömningar av populationsutveckling problematisk. Den hotbildsanalys som genomförts av OSPAR för Mytilus- och Ostrea-bankar i Europa indikerar att den primära orsaken till förlust av bivalvbankar i Europa är överexploatering av resursen och habitatförlust, samt sjukdomsutbrott orsakade av patogener. Svenska bivalvbestånd är dock mer eller mindre förskonade från dessa påverkansfaktorer, och andra aspekter kan därmed antas ha större påverkan på populationsutvecklingen. Till exempel finns det en oro bland förvaltande myndigheter att det invasiva stillahavsostronet (Magallana gigas) kommer att försämra förutsättningarna för livskraftiga bestånd av Mytilus och Ostrea i Sverige. I detta projekt sammanställdes data från historiska (1970-talet och framåt) inventeringar med syfte att utvärdera om analys av förändringar av bivalvpopulationerna över tid var möjlig. Genomgången av historiska data från Bohuslän genererade inga tidsserier som kunde bidra till en värdering av populationsutvecklingen av Mytilus och Ostrea. I tillägg visade genomgången att inventeringsmetoderna som använts skiljde sig över tid och att det saknades en standardiserad definition av vad som betecknas som en bivalvbank. Sammantaget visar detta på behovet av kontinuitet och standardiserad övervakning av bivalvbankar, inkluderande en tydlig definition av vad som räknas som en bivalvbank. Detta skapar förutsättningar för uppbyggnad av tidsserier och uppföljning av trender i populationsutvec, Bivalves such as mussels (Mytilus edulis) and flat oysters (Ostrea edulis) are key species in coastal ecosystems and they contribute to increased biodiversity by creating habitats for other organisms and to several other important ecosystem services. In recent years, both Mytilus and Ostrea banks have declined in number and extent in Europe, and there are also strong indications of a similar situation for Mytilus in Sweden. For Ostrea, knowledge of population sizes is generally lacking, which makes assessments of population development difficult. The threat assessment carried out by OSPAR for Mytilus and Ostrea beds in Europe indicates that the primary cause of loss of bivalve beds in Europe is overexploitation and habitat loss, as well as disease outbreaks caused by pathogens. Swedish populations are, however, more or less spared from these factors and other aspects can therefore be assumed to have a greater impact on popu-lation development. However, other factors can also affect population development. For example, there is concern among management authorities that the invasive Pacific oyster (Magallana gigas) will worsen the conditions for Mytilus and Ostrea stocks in Sweden. In this project, data from historical (1970s onwards) surveys was compiled with the aim of evaluating whether analysis of temporal changes in bivalve populations was possible. A review of historical data from Bohuslän did not generate any time series that could contribute to an as-sessment of the population development of Mytilus and Ostrea. In addition, the review showed that the survey methods used differed between studies and over time, and that there was a lack of a standardized definition of what is designated as a bivalve bed. Overall, this illustrates the need for continuity and standardized monitoring of bivalve beds, including a clear definition of what counts as a bivalve bed. This could support the development of time series to monitoring trends in the population development of t, C729

Denna rapport syftar till att öka förståelsen för vilken roll den fysiska planeringen spelar i att skapa rätt förutsättningar för en växande och hållbar vattenbrukssektor i Sverige. Intervjuer har genomförts med tjänstepersoner på flera kommuner i Bohuslän, tjänstepersoner på länsstyrelsen i Västra Götaland samt odlare. Genomgångar har även gjorts av nationella strategier, planeringsdokument och tillståndsbeslut för extraktiva odlingar. Rapporten kan både läsas som en introduktion till samhällsplaneringens roll för en hållbart växande vattenbrukssektor (med fokus på de första delarna av rapporten), och som en analys av hur dagens planering fungerar för att ge rätt förutsättningar för sektorn (senare delen av rapporten). Resultaten från arbetet visar på stora svårigheter med att få den kommunala fysiska planeringen och länsstyrelsens tillståndsprocesser att synka med varandra. Även om kommuner tagit fram planeringsdokument för att skapa en proaktiv planering av havet, följer inte den reaktiva tillståndsprövningen den kommunala planeringen. Detta skapar frustration och förvirring för de som söker tillstånd och resulterar i hämmande effekter på sektorn. För att nå målen i nationella handlingsplaner och strategier om att vattenbrukssektorn ska växa behöver därför denna problematik lösas. För att förbättra den svenska kustzonsplaneringen diskuteras i rapporten tre olika behov att arbeta med framåt. För det första krävs mer samsyn mellan flera aktörer och inom flera frågor. Detta inkluderar till exempel behovet av säkerhetsavstånd till naturvärden, hotade naturtyper (som ålgräs), hur stora ekosystemtjänster som odlingar genererar och hur stora störningarna är på friluftslivet. Samsyn inom dessa centrala frågor är en viktig grund för ökad samverkan mellan aktörerna. För det andra behöver roller och mandat mellan olika myndigheter klargöras och kanske även förändras. Kommunernas vana att på land kunna ta fram planer som prioriterar mellan intressen och gör ytor exklusiva fö

The European native oyster (Ostrea edulis) is a threatened keystone species which historically created extensive, physically complex, biogenic habitats throughout European seas. Overfishing and direct habitat destruction, subsequently compounded by pollution, invasive species, disease, predation and climate change have resulted in the functional extinction of native oyster habitat across much of its former range. Although oyster reef habitat remains imperilled, active restoration efforts are rapidly gaining momentum. Identifying appropriate sites for habitat restoration is an essential first step in long-term project success. In this study, a three-round Delphi process was conducted to determine the most important factors to consider in site selection for European native oyster habitat restoration projects. Consensus was reached on a total of 65 factors as being important to consider in site selection for European native oyster habitat restoration projects. In addition to the abiotic factors typically included in habitat suitability models, socio-economic and logistical factors were found to be important. Determining the temporal and spatial variability of threats to native oyster habitat restoration and understanding the biotic factors present at a proposed restoration site also influence the potential for project scale-up and longevity. This list guides site selection by identifying: a shortlist of measurable factors which should be considered; the relevant data to collect; topics for discussion in participatory mapping processes; information of interest from the existing body of local ecological knowledge; and factors underpinning supportive and facilitating regulatory frameworks

The development of a seedling into a photosynthetically active plant is a crucial process. Despite its importance, we do not fully understand the regulatory mechanisms behind the establishment of functional chloroplasts. We herein provide new insight into the early light response by identifying the function of three basic region/leucine zipper (bZIP) transcription factors: bZIP16, bZIP68, and GBF1. These proteins are involved in the regulation of key components required for the establishment of photosynthetically active chloroplasts. The activity of these bZIPs is dependent on the redox status of a conserved cysteine residue, which provides a mechanism to finetune light-responsive gene expression. The blue light cryptochrome (CRY) photoreceptors provide one of the major light-signaling pathways, and bZIP target genes overlap with one-third of CRY-regulated genes with an enrichment for photosynthesis/chloroplast-associated genes. bZIP16, bZIP68, and GBF1 were demonstrated as novel interaction partners of CRY1. The interaction between CRY1 and bZIP16 was stimulated by blue light. Furthermore, we demonstrate a genetic link between the bZIP proteins and cryptochromes as the cry1cry2 mutant is epistatic to the cry1cry2bzip16bzip68gbf1 mutant. bZIP16, bZIP68, and GBF1 regulate a subset of photosynthesis associated genes in response to blue light critical for a proper greening process in Arabidopsis.

Increasing plants' photosynthetic efficiency is a major challenge that must be addressed in order to cover the food demands of the growing population in the changing climate. Photosynthesis is greatly limited at the initial carboxylation reaction, where CO2 is converted to the organic acid 3-PGA, catalyzed by the RuBisCO enzyme. RuBisCO has poor affinity for CO2, but also the CO2 concentration at the RuBisCO site is limited by the diffusion of atmospheric CO2 through the various leaf compartments to the reaction site. Beyond genetic engineering, nanotechnology can offer a materials-based approach for enhancing photosynthesis, and yet, it has mostly been explored for the light-dependent reactions. In this work, we developed polyethyleneimine-based nanoparticles for enhancing the carboxylation reaction. We demonstrate that the nanoparticles can capture CO2 in the form of bicarbonate and increase the CO2 that reacts with the RuBisCO enzyme, enhancing the 3-PGA production in in vitro assays by 20%. The nanoparticles can be introduced to the plant via leaf infiltration and, because of the functionalization with chitosan oligomers, they do not induce any toxic effect to the plant. In the leaves, the nanoparticles localize in the apoplastic space but also spontaneously reach the chloroplasts where photosynthetic activity takes place. Their CO2 loading-dependent fluorescence verifies that, in vivo, they maintain their ability to capture CO2 and can be therefore reloaded with atmospheric CO2 while in planta. Our results contribute to the development of a nanomaterials-based CO2-concentrating mechanism in plants that can potentially increase photosynthetic efficiency and overall plants' CO2 storage.

Oyster reefs are often referred to as the temperate functional equivalent of coral reefs. Yet evidence for this analogy is lacking for the European native species Ostrea edulis and its biogenic habitat. Recently assembled historical data provide a unique opportunity to develop a robust definition for this ecosystem type, confirm that O. edulis are biogenic reef builders, and assess its current conservation status. Today, O. edulis typically occur as scattered individuals or, in a few locations, as dense clumps over a few m2, however, historically O. edulis reef ecosystems persisted at large scales. A key finding is that O. edulis reef ecosystems should therefore be assessed at the >ha scale.Using the IUCN Red list of Ecosystems Framework, we conclude the European native oyster reef ecosystem type is Collapsed under three of five criteria (A: reduction in geographic distribution, B: restricted geographic range, and D: disruption of biotic processes and interactions). Criterion C (environmental degradation) was assessed as data deficient and Criterion E (quantitative risk analysis) was not completed as the ecosystem was already deemed collapsed. Our assessment has far reaching implications for conservation policy and action, and shows that the scale of current restoration efforts fall far short of what is necessary for ecosystem recovery.

Ocean ecosystems have been subjected to anthropogenic influences for centuries, but the scale of past ecosystem changes is often unknown. For centuries, the European flat oyster (Ostrea edulis), an ecosystem engineer providing biogenic reef habitats, was a culturally and economically significant source of food and trade. These reef habitats are now functionally extinct, and almost no memory of where this ecosystem once existed, at what scales, or its past form and functioning, remains. The described datasets present qualitative and quantitative extracts from written records published between 1524 and 2022, which show: (1) locations of past oyster fisheries and/or oyster reef habitat across its biogeographical range, with associated levels of confidence; (2) extent of past oyster reef habitats, and; (3) species associated with these habitats. These datasets will be of use to inform accelerating restoration activities, to establish reference models for anchoring adaptive management of restoration action, and in contributing to global efforts to recover records on the hidden history of anthropogenic-driven ocean ecosystem degradation.

In the face of an increasing world population and a subsequent need for an increase in sustainable and healthy food production, low trophic species, such as oysters, emerge as a promising alternative. However, regional variations in oyster production techniques, market dynamics, and consumption patterns create challenges for both the global and local industry’s growth. In this study, a descriptive qualitative analysis of oyster markets across seven Atlantic regions was carried out. The Pacific oyster (Crassostrea gigas) was found to be farmed in most Atlantic regions except the US but is classified as invasive in Sweden and potentially invasive in South Africa. Other farmed and/or harvested species include native species (C. gasar and C. rhizophorae) in Brazil, the American cupped oyster (C. virginica) in the US, and the European flat oyster (Ostrea edulis) in France, Sweden, and the US. In Irish farms, Pacific oysters are primarily for export to European markets. The marine aquaculture sectors of Sweden, South Africa, and Namibia, as well as Brazil’s farming for C. gasar, were found to be underdeveloped. This study also observed a variation in licensing, property rights, and regulatory frameworks. Financial challenges for small businesses, ecological implications of seed production techniques, biosecurity risks, and public health considerations are emphasized as critical areas for attention. This study offers valuable insights into the selected markets and can serve as a useful resource for policymakers, aquaculture practitioners, and stakeholders in optimizing global shellfish industry strategies.

Anthropogenic activities have impacted marine ecosystems at extraordinary scales. Biogenic reef ecosystems built by the European flat oyster (Ostrea edulis) typically declined prior to scientific monitoring. Collating >1,600 records published over 350 years, we created a highly resolved (10km2) map of historical oyster reef presence across its biogeographic range, including documenting abundant reef habitats along the coasts of France, Denmark, Ireland and the United Kingdom. Areal extent data were available from just 26% of locations, yet totalled >1.7 million hectares (median reef size = 30ha, range 0.01 - 1,536,000ha), with 190 associated macrofauna species from 13 phyla described. Our analysis demonstrates that oyster reefs were once a dominant three-dimensional feature of European coastlines, with their loss pointing to a fundamental restructuring and ‘flattening’ of coastal and shallow-shelf seafloors. This unique empirical record demonstrates the highly degraded nature of European seas and provides key baseline context for international restoration commitments.

The European flat oyster, Ostrea edulis, is a habitat-forming bivalve which was historically widespread throughout Europe. Following its decline due to overfishing, pollution, sedimentation, invasive species, and disease, O. edulis and its beds are now listed as a threatened and/or declining species and habitat by OSPAR. Increasing recognition of the plight of the oyster, alongside rapidly developing restoration techniques and growing interest in marine restoration, has resulted in a recent and rapid growth in habitat restoration efforts. O. edulis seed supply is currently a major bottleneck in scaling up habitat restoration efforts in Europe. O. edulis has been cultured for centuries, however, research into its culture declined following the introduction of the Pacific oyster, Crassostrea gigas to Europe in the early 1970 s. Recent efforts to renew both hatchery and pond production of O. edulis seed for habitat restoration purposes are hampered by restoration project timelines and funding typically being short, or projects not planning appropriately for the timescales required for investment, research-and-development and delivery of oyster seed by commercial producers. Furthermore, funding for restoration is intermittent, making long-term commitments between producers and restoration practitioners difficult. Long-term, strategic investment in research and production are needed to overcome these bottlenecks and meet current ambitious restoration targets across Europe.

The European flat oyster, Ostrea edulis, is a habitat-forming bivalve which was historically widespread throughout Europe. Following its decline due to overfishing, pollution, sedimentation, invasive species, and disease, O. edulis and its beds are now listed as a threatened and/or declining species and habitat by OSPAR. Increasing recognition of the plight of the oyster, alongside rapidly developing restoration techniques and growing interest in marine restoration, has resulted in a recent and rapid growth in habitat restoration efforts. O. edulis seed supply is currently a major bottleneck in scaling up habitat restoration efforts in Europe. O. edulis has been cultured for centuries, however, research into its culture declined following the introduction of the Pacific oyster, Crassostrea gigas to Europe in the early 1970 s. Recent efforts to renew both hatchery and pond production of O. edulis seed for habitat restoration purposes are hampered by restoration project timelines and funding typically being short, or projects not planning appropriately for the timescales required for investment, research-and-development and delivery of oyster seed by commercial producers. Furthermore, funding for restoration is intermittent, making long-term commitments between producers and restoration practitioners difficult. Long-term, strategic investment in research and production are needed to overcome these bottlenecks and meet current ambitious restoration targets across Europe.

The European native oyster (Ostrea edulis) is a threatened keystone species which historically created extensive, physically complex, biogenic habitats throughout European seas. Overfishing and direct habitat destruction, subsequently compounded by pollution, invasive species, disease, predation and climate change have resulted in the functional extinction of native oyster habitat across much of its former range. Although oyster reef habitat remains imperilled, active restoration efforts are rapidly gaining momentum. Identifying appropriate sites for habitat restoration is an essential first step in long-term project success. In this study, a three-round Delphi process was conducted to determine the most important factors to consider in site selection for European native oyster habitat restoration projects. Consensus was reached on a total of 65 factors as being important to consider in site selection for European native oyster habitat restoration projects. In addition to the abiotic factors typically included in habitat suitability models, socio-economic and logistical factors were found to be important. Determining the temporal and spatial variability of threats to native oyster habitat restoration and understanding the biotic factors present at a proposed restoration site also influence the potential for project scale-up and longevity. This list guides site selection by identifying: a shortlist of measurable factors which should be considered; the relevant data to collect; topics for discussion in participatory mapping processes; information of interest from the existing body of local ecological knowledge; and factors underpinning supportive and facilitating regulatory frameworks.