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Purpose The purpose of this study was to assess the ability of innocent suspects to produce accurate alibis, as well as to identify procedures police interviewers can use to increase the probability of generating accurate alibis. Design/methodology/approach In Study 1, 54 university students had a lecture (target event) end at either the normal time (schema group) or 25 min early (non-schema group) and then attempted to generate an alibi for the target event after either a short, moderate or long delay. In Study 2, 20 students had a lecture end 25 min early and underwent an interview regarding their whereabouts using a reverse-order interview technique designed to disrupt schema usage. Findings Results from Study 1 suggested that participants relied on schemas to generate their alibis, which led to false alibis for the non-schema group, and this reliance was more pronounced as the delay between event and recall increased. In Study 2, all but one participant produced a false alibi, suggesting reverse order is ineffective in increasing accurate recall in alibi situations. Practical implications Results from the two studies revealed that people can produce false alibis easily in mock police interviews – a finding that appears to result from the reliance on schemas. These findings highlight the relative ease with which innocent individuals can produce false alibis. Further research, specific to the alibi generation process, is needed to give police interviewers the tools to produce more accurate and detailed alibis. Originality/value This research provides additional evidence regarding the role of schemas in alibi generation. Contrary to findings from the eyewitness area, reverse-order instructions failed to disrupt schema reliance and do not appear to be an effective alibi-elicitation technique.

Substance abuse is a risk factor for recidivism that is commonly assessed by the Level of Service Inventory–Ontario Revision (LSI-OR) via the Substance Abuse subscale. Research has yet to examine the predictive validity of this subscale relative to types of substances abused. To explore this, substance abuse history, LSI-OR information, and recidivism were coded for a sample of 498 individuals convicted of a crime with a current substance abuse problem. These individuals were classified by the types and number of substances abused. Results of this study provide some evidence supporting the predictive validity of the LSI-OR Substance Abuse subscale. Furthermore, we found preliminary evidence supporting the predictive validity of the subscale for substance abusers relative to types of substances abused and for those who abuse a single substance versus multiple substances. These results have implications for research, policy, and correctional practice.

The use of technology in the courtroom is increasingly commonplace. While some research has explored how technology may influence jurors throughout the trial itself, there has been little focus on how it might influence jurors during the deliberation period, or whether it affects their verdicts. The current study assessed whether the form of evidence available during the decision-making period, along with the mock juror’s level of motivation for the task, affects how trial information is processed and how verdict decisions are made. Mock-jurors (N = 243), half of whom were explicitly informed of the task’s importance, watched a video of a murder trial. During the decision-making phase, some jurors were then given the opportunity to review the trial video, transcript, or both before rendering a final verdict. While there were no differences in verdicts as a function of review condition, the amount of content mock-jurors reviewed differed by review condition.

Neutrinoless double-beta ($0\nu\beta\beta$) decay is a hypothesized lepton-number-violating process that offers the only known means of asserting the possible Majorana nature of neutrino mass. The Cryogenic Underground Observatory for Rare Events (CUORE) is an upcoming experiment designed to search for $0\nu\beta\beta$ decay of $^{130}$Te using an array of 988 TeO$_2$ crystal bolometers operated at 10 mK. The detector will contain 206 kg of $^{130}$Te and have an average energy resolution of 5 keV; the projected $0\nu\beta\beta$ decay half-life sensitivity after five years of live time is $1.6\times 10^{26}$ y at $1\sigma$ ($9.5\times10^{25}$ y at the 90% confidence level), which corresponds to an upper limit on the effective Majorana mass in the range 40--100 meV (50--130 meV). In this paper we review the experimental techniques used in CUORE as well as its current status and anticipated physics reach., Comment: 20 pages, 8 figures. Published in Advances in High Energy Physics, Volume 2015 (2015), Article ID 879871

CUORE, the Cryogenic Underground Observatory for Rare Events, is an experiment searching for the neutrinoless double-beta decay of 130Te. The first CUORE dataset was acquired in May and June 2017 and consisted of 10.6 kg-yr of TeO2 exposure, with several days of calibration data before and after the physics dataset. We discuss here the initial performance of the CUORE detector and cryostat in this first dataset.

The extent to which youths understand their interrogation rights was examined. High school students (N=160) from five different grades were presented with one of two Canadian youth waiver forms—varying widely in reading complexity—and tested on their knowledge of their legal rights. Results showed that comprehension of both waiver forms was equally deficient, and systematic misunderstandings of vital legal rights were discovered (e.g., the right to remain silent). There was also a positive linear relationship between high school grade level and amount of comprehension. Potential ways to enhance youths’ understand- ing of their rights and provide them protection during interrogations are discussed.

We have measured the triple correlation $D\langle\vec J_n\rangle/J_n\cdot (\vec\beta_e\times\hat p_\nu)$ with a polarized cold-neutron beam (Mumm et al., Phys Rev Lett 107:102301, 2011; Chupp et al., Phys Rev C 86:035505, 2012). A non-zero value of D can arise due to parity-even-time-reversal-odd interactions that imply CP violation. Final-state effects also contribute to D at the level of 10 − 5 and can be calculated with precision of 1 % or better. The D coefficient is uniquely sensitive to the imaginary part of the ratio of axial-vector and vector beta-decay amplitudes as well as to scalar and tensor interactions that could arise due to beyond-Standard-Model physics. Over 300 million proton-electron coincidence events were used in a blind analysis with the result D = [ − 0.94±1.89 (stat)±0.97(sys)]×10 − 4. Assuming only vector and axial vector interactions in beta decay, our result can be interpreted as a measure of the phase of the axial-vector coupling relative to the vector coupling, $\phi_{\rm AV}= 180.012^\circ \pm 0.028^\circ$ . This result also improves constrains on certain non-VA interactions.

We describe in detail the methods used to obtain the lower bound on the lifetime of neutrinoless double-beta (0 nu beta beta) decay in Te-130 and the associated limit on the effective Majorana mass of the neutrino using the CUORE-0 detector. CUORE-0 is a bolometric detector array located at the Laboratori Nazionali del Gran Sasso that was designed to validate the background reduction techniques developed for CUORE, a next-generation experiment scheduled to come online in 2016. CUORE-0 is also a competitive 0 nu beta beta decay search in its own right and functions as a platform to further develop the analysis tools and procedures to be used in CUORE. These include data collection, event selection and processing, as well as an evaluation of signal efficiency. In particular, we describe the amplitude evaluation, thermal gain stabilization, energy calibration methods, and the analysis event selection used to create our final 0 nu beta beta search spectrum. We define our high level analysis procedures, with emphasis on the new insights gained and challenges encountered. We outline in detail our fitting methods near the hypothesized 0 nu beta beta decay peak and catalog the main sources of systematic uncertainty. Finally, we derive the 0 nu beta beta decay half-life limits previously reported for CUORE-0, T-1/2(0 nu) > 2.7 x 10(24) yr, and in combination with the Cuoricino limit, T-1/2(0 nu) > 4.0 x 10(24) yr.

Although youth in many Western countries have been afforded enhanced legal protections when facing police interrogations, the effectiveness of these protections may be limited by youth’s inability to comprehend them. The ability to increase the comprehension of Canadian interrogation rights among youth through the simplification of waiver forms was assessed. High school students (N = 367) in grades 9, 10, and 11 were presented with one of three waiver forms that varied in level of complexity. Comprehension of the information in the forms was assessed using free recall and multiple-choice questions. Results showed that comprehension levels increased as waiver form complexity decreased and comprehension levels increased as the age of the youth increased. The implications of these findings for the development of comprehensible youth interrogation rights are discussed.

We report the results of a search for neutrinoless double-beta decay in a 9.8 kg yr exposure of Te-130 using a bolometric detector array, CUORE-0. The characteristic detector energy resolution and background level in the region of interest are 5.1 +/- 0.3 keV FWHM and 0.058 +/- 0.004(stat) +/- 0.002(syst)counts/(keV kg yr), respectively. The median 90% C.L. lower-limit half-life sensitivity of the experiment is 2.9 x 10(24) yr and surpasses the sensitivity of previous searches. We find no evidence for neutrinoless double-beta decay of Te-130 and place a Bayesian lower bound on the decay half-life, T-1/2(0 nu) > 2.7 x 10(24) yr at 90% C.L. Combining CUORE-0 data with the 19.75 kg yr exposure of Te-130 from the Cuoricino experiment we obtain T-1/2(0 nu) > 4.0 x 10(24) yr at 90% C.L. (Bayesian), the most stringent limit to date on this half-life. Using a range of nuclear matrix element estimates we interpret this as a limit on the effective Majorana neutrino mass, m beta beta < 270-760 meV.

The properties of a neutral atom trap are nearly ideal for precise measurements of nuclear β -decay correlation coefficients. Following a radioactive decay, all particles emerge from the trap volume unperturbed and are available for study. However, for measurements online at existing accelerators, sufficient statistics will be difficult to acquire if precision significantly better than 0.01 in the correlation coefficients is desired. We have investigated the feasibility of detecting shake-off electrons in coincidence with the recoiling ions to decrease the statistical uncertainty of some measurements by nearly an order of magnitude.

The standard electro-weak model predicts negligible violation of time-reversal invariance in light quark processes. We report on an experimental test of time-reversal invariance in the beta decay of polarized neutrons as a search for physics beyond the standard model. The emiT collaboration has measured the time-reversal-violating triple-correlation in neutron beta decay between the neutron spin, electron momentum, and neutrino momentum often referred to as the D coe$cient. The "rst run of the experiment produced 14 million events which are currently being analyzed. However, a second run with improved detectors should provide greater statistical precision and reduced systematic uncertainties. ( 2000 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

The weak {beta}{sup +} decay of the astrophysically significant radioisotope {sup 54}Mn has been observed. The energies of positrons from a chemically purified {sup 54}Mn source were measured using the APEX spectrometer at Argonne National Laboratory. We deduce a {beta}{sup +} decay branch of (1.20{plus_minus}0.26){times}10{sup {minus}9} , corresponding to a partial half-life of (7.1{plus_minus}1.5){times}10{sup 8} yr . The implications of this value for cosmic-ray confinement times are discussed in light of recent satellite measurements of the cosmic-ray abundance of {sup 54}Mn . {copyright} {ital 1998} {ital The American Physical Society}

We present a systematic evaluation of the shape of the neutrino energy spectrum produced by beta decay of $^{8}\mathrm{B}$. We place special emphasis on determining the range of uncertainties permitted by existing laboratory data and theoretical ingredients (such as forbidden and radiative corrections). We review and compare the available experimental data on the $^{8}\mathrm{B}$(${\mathrm{\ensuremath{\beta}}}^{+}$${)}^{8}$Be(2\ensuremath{\alpha}) decay chain. We analyze the theoretical and experimental uncertainties quantitatively. We give a numerical representation of the best-fit (standard-model) neutrino spectrum, as well as two extreme deviations from the standard spectrum that represent the total (experimental and theoretical) effective \ifmmode\pm\else\textpm\fi{}3\ensuremath{\sigma} deviations. Solar neutrino experiments that are currently being developed will be able to measure the shape of the $^{8}\mathrm{B}$ neutrino spectrum above about 5 MeV. An observed distortion of the $^{8}\mathrm{B}$ solar neutrino spectrum outside the range given in the present work could be considered as evidence, at an effective significance level greater than three standard deviations, for physics beyond the standard electroweak model. We use the most recent available experimental data on the Gamow-Teller strengths in the A=37 system to calculate the $^{8}\mathrm{B}$ neutrino absorption cross section on chlorine: ${\mathrm{\ensuremath{\sigma}}}_{\mathrm{Cl}}$=(1.14\ifmmode\pm\else\textpm\fi{}0.11)\ifmmode\times\else\texttimes\fi{}${10}^{\mathrm{\ensuremath{-}}42}$ ${\mathrm{cm}}^{2}$ (\ifmmode\pm\else\textpm\fi{}3\ensuremath{\sigma} errors). The chlorine cross section is also given as a function of the neutrino energy. The $^{8}\mathrm{B}$ neutrino absorption cross section in gallium is ${\mathrm{\ensuremath{\sigma}}}_{\mathrm{Ga}}$=(2.${46}_{\mathrm{\ensuremath{-}}1.1}^{+2.1}$)\ifmmode\times\else\texttimes\fi{}${10}^{\mathrm{\ensuremath{-}}42}$ ${\mathrm{cm}}^{2}$ (\ifmmode\pm\else\textpm\fi{}3\ensuremath{\sigma} errors). \textcopyright{} 1996 The American Physical Society.

The neutrino spectrum from the decay of 8 B is a crucial ingredient in interpreting recent data from solar neutrino detectors. The β + decay of 8 B proceeds to a broad state in 8 Be, and the shape of the neutrino spectrum may be obtained from a measurement of the α spectrum following the β + decay. A new technique has been used at the ATLAS accelerator to measure this spectrum by implanting 8 B particles into the mid-plane of a 91 μm thick Si detector. The advantage of this method is that both α particles are detected and systematic effects due to energy loss in catcher foils and dead layers of the detector are eliminated. To calibrate the detector, α's from the decay of 20 Na ions produced and implanted with the same technique were used.

The neutrino spectrum from the decay of 8 B is a crucial ingredient in interpreting recent data from solar neutrino detectors. Since 8 B decays to a broad state in 8 Be, the shape of the neutrino spectrum is best obtained from a measurement of the α spectrum following the β + decay. A new technique has been used at the ATLAS accelerator to measure this spectrum by implanting 8 B particles into the mid-plane of a 91 μm thick Si detector. The advantage of this method is that both α particles are detected and systematic effects due to energy loss in catcher foils and dead layers of the detector are eliminated. To calibrate the detector, α's from the decay of 20 Na ions produced and implanted with the same technique were used.

Pair correlations in the ground state of {sup 130}Te have been investigated using pair-transfer experiments to explore the validity of approximations in calculating the matrix element for neutrinoless double-{beta} decay. This nucleus is a candidate for the observation of such decay, and a good understanding of its structure is crucial for eventual calculations of the neutrino mass, should such a decay indeed be observed. For proton-pair adding, strong transitions to excited 0{sup +} states had been observed in the Te isotopes by Alford et al. [Nucl. Phys. A 323, 339 (1979)], indicating a breaking of the BCS approximation for protons in the ground state. We measured the neutron-pair removing (p,t) reaction on {sup 130}Te and found no indication of a corresponding splitting of the BCS nature of the ground state for neutrons.

We summarize and critically evaluate the available data on nuclear fusion cross sections important to energy generation in the Sun and other hydrogen-burning stars and to solar neutrino production. Recommended values and uncertainties are provided for key cross sections, and a recommended spectrum is given for 8B solar neutrinos. We also discuss opportunities for further increasing the precision of key rates, including new facilities, new experimental techniques, and improvements in theory. This review, which summarizes the conclusions of a workshop held at the Institute for Nuclear Theory, Seattle, in January 2009, is intended as a 10-year update and supplement to Reviews of Modern Physics 70 (1998) 1265., 54 pages, 20 figures, version to be published in Reviews of Modern Physics; various typos corrected and several updates made

The worldwide program to understand neutrino oscillations and determine the neutrino mixing parameters, CP violating effects, and mass hierarchy will require a broad combination of measurements. The group believes that a key element of this future neutrino program is a multi-detector neutrino experiment (with baselines of {approx} 200 m and {approx} 1.5 km) with a sensitivity of sin{sup 2} 2{theta}{sub 13} = 0.01. In addition to oscillation physics, the reactor experiment may provide interesting measurements of sin{sup 2} {theta}{sub W} at Q{sup 2} = 0, neutrino couplings, magnetic moments, and mixing with sterile neutrino states. {theta}{sub 13} is one of the twenty-six parameters of the standard model, the best model of electroweak interactions for energies below 100 GeV and, as such, is worthy of a precision measurement independent of other considerations. A reactor experiment of the proposed sensitivity will allow a measurement of {theta}{sub 13} with no ambiguities and significantly better precision than any other proposed experiment, or will set limits indicating the scale of future experiments required to make progress. Figure 1 shows a comparison of the sensitivity of reactor experiments of different scales with accelerator experiments for setting limits on sin{sup 2} 2{theta}{sub 13} if the mixing angle is very small, or for making a measurement of sin{sup 2} 2{theta}{sub 13} if the angle is observable. A reactor experiment with a 1% precision may also resolve the degeneracy in the {theta}{sub 23} parameter when combined with long-baseline accelerator experiments. In combination with long-baseline measurements, a reactor experiment may give early indications of CP violation and the mass hierarchy. The combination of the T2K and Nova long-baseline experiments will be able to make significant measurements of these effects if sin{sup 2} 2{theta}{sub 13} > 0.05 and with enhanced beam rates can improve their reach to the sin{sup 2} 2{theta}{sub 13} > 0.02 level. If {theta}{sub 13} turns out to be smaller than these values, one will need other strategies for getting to the physics. Thus, an unambiguous reactor measurement of {theta}{sub 13} is an important ingredient in planning the strategy for the future neutrino program.

The highest priority of the Solar and Atmospheric Neutrino Experiment Working Group is the development of a real-time, precision experiment that measures the pp solar neutrino flux. A measurement of the pp solar neutrino flux, in comparison with the existing precision measurements of the high energy {sup 8}B neutrino flux, will demonstrate the transition between vacuum and matter-dominated oscillations, thereby quantitatively testing a fundamental prediction of the standard scenario of neutrino flavor transformation. The initial solar neutrino beam is pure {nu}{sub e}, which also permits sensitive tests for sterile neutrinos. The pp experiment will also permit a significantly improved determination of {theta}{sub 12} and, together with other solar neutrino measurements, either a measurement of {theta}{sub 13} or a constraint a factor of two lower than existing bounds. In combination with the essential pre-requisite experiments that will measure the {sup 7}Be solar neutrino flux with a precision of 5%, a measurement of the pp solar neutrino flux will constitute a sensitive test for non-standard energy generation mechanisms within the Sun. The Standard Solar Model predicts that the pp and {sup 7}Be neutrinos together constitute more than 98% of the solar neutrino flux. The comparison of the solar luminosity measured via neutrinos to that measured via photons will test for any unknown energy generation mechanisms within the nearest star. A precise measurement of the pp neutrino flux (predicted to be 92% of the total flux) will also test stringently the theory of stellar evolution since the Standard Solar Model predicts the pp flux with a theoretical uncertainty of 1%. We also find that an atmospheric neutrino experiment capable of resolving the mass hierarchy is a high priority. Atmospheric neutrino experiments may be the only alternative to very long baseline accelerator experiments as a way of resolving this fundamental question. Such an experiment could be a very large scale water Cerenkov detector, or a magnetized detector with flavor and antiflavor sensitivity. Additional priorities are nuclear physics measurements which will reduce the uncertainties in the predictions of the Standard Solar Model, and similar supporting measurements for atmospheric neutrinos (cosmic ray fluxes, magnetic fields, etc.). We note as well that the detectors for both solar and atmospheric neutrino measurements can serve as multipurpose detectors, with capabilities of discovering dark matter, relic supernova neutrinos, proton decay, or as targets for long baseline accelerator neutrino experiments.

We have limited a CPT-violating correlation in annihilations of polarized ortho-positronium. We searched for an asymmetry in the triple correlation s--.(k--(1)xk--(2)), where k--(1) and k--(2) are the two largest photon momenta, and s--is the spin of the positronium. Using the Gammasphere array of Compton-suppressed high-purity germanium detectors, we detected 2.65x10(7) events of ortho-Ps annihilation. The amplitude of a CPT-violating asymmetry in the data set is found to be 0.0026+/-0.0031, a factor of 6 smaller than previous experiments.

In order to produce a radioactive ion beam of /sup 14/O/sup +/, a 10 cm-diameter, 13.56 MHz radio frequency (RF) driven multicusp ion source is now being developed at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. In this paper we describe the ion source performance with respect to its capability as an ion source for radioactive ion beam (RIB) production using Ar, Xe and a 90% Ar/10% CO gas mixture. In addition ion optic simulations for the radioactive beam line leading to the design of the ion beam extraction/transport system for the actual experimental setup will be discussed.

We report on a measurement of the highly forbidden $6s^2 ^1S_0 \to 5d6s ^3 D_1$ magnetic-dipole transition in atomic ytterbium using the Stark-interference technique. This amplitude is important in interpreting a future parity nonconservation experiment that exploits the same transition. We find $| | ~ = ~ 1.33(6)_{Stat}(20)_{\beta} \times 10^{-4} \mu_0$, where the larger uncertainty comes from the previously measured vector transition polarizability $\beta$. The $M1$ amplitude is small and should not limit the precision of the parity nonconservation experiment.

Recent and ongoing experiments testing various fundamental discrete symmetries are discussed, including search for parity nonconservation in dysprosium and ytterbium, investigation of possibilities of searches for parity and time-reversal invariance violation in samarium, and a test of permutation properties of photons in a two-photon transition in barium.

By confining up to 500,000 radioactive 21Na atoms in a magneto-optic trap, we have studied the beta-neutrino correlation. The 21Na is produced on-line at the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory 88″ Cyclotron and trapped using common laser cooling techniques. We detect the low-energy recoil 21Ne daughter nucleus in coincidence with the decay positron. Using the recoil’s time-of-flight, we determine the initial momentum of the recoil nucleus and infer the β-ν correlation. Our current data set has a statistical uncertainty to determine the correlation parameter a to better than 2%, and we are studying potential systematic errors at the few percent level. Other beta decay correlations can be studied using magneto-optically trapped radioactive atoms. Precise measurements of correlation parameters can provide limits on non-Standard Model scalar and tensor interactions, or anomalous induced form factors.

The weak pion-nucleon coupling constant Hπ1 remains poorly determined, despite many years of effort. The recent measurement of the 133Cs anapole moment has been interpreted to give a value of Hπ1 almost an order of magnitude larger than the limit established in the 18F parity doublet experiments. A measurement of the gamma ray directional asymmetry Aγ for the capture of polarized neutrons by hydrogen has been proposed at Los Alamos National Laboratory. This experiment will determine Hπ1 independent of nuclear structure effects. However, since the predicted asymmetry is small, Aγ≈5×10−8, systematic effects must be reduced to

For the on-line production of a 14O+ ion beam, an integrated target—transfer line ion source system is now under development at LBNL. 14O is produced in the form of CO in a high temperature carbon target using a 20 MeV 3He beam from the LBNL 88″ Cyclotron via the reaction 12C(3He,n)14O. The neutral radioactive CO molecules diffuse through an 8 m room temperature stainless steel line from the target chamber into a cusp ion source. The molecules are dissociated, ionized and extracted at energies of 20 to 30 keV and mass separated with a double focusing bending magnet. The different components of the setup are described. The release and transport efficiency for the CO molecules from the target through the transfer line was measured for various target temperatures. The ion beam transport efficiencies and the off-line ion source efficiencies for Ar, O2 and CO are presented. Ionization efficiencies of 28% for Ar+, 1% for CO, 0.7% for O+, 0.33 for C+ have been measured.

Lifetimes of 21 excited states in atomic Yb were measured using time-resolved fluorescence detection following pulsed laser excitation. The lifetime of the 4${\mathit{f}}^{14}$5d6${\mathit{s}}^{\mathrm{}3}$${\mathit{D}}_{1}$ state, which is of particular importance for a proposed study of parity nonconservation in atoms, was measured to be 380(30) ns. \textcopyright{} 1996 The American Physical Society.

The /sup 46/Ti(p,t)/sup 44/Ti reaction is used to populate the lowest T = 2 level and decay products from the level are detected in coincidence. The branching ratio for isospin forbidden ..cap alpha.. decay to /sup 40/Ca(g.s.) is GAMMA/sub b//GAMMA = (32 +- 5) %; the directly measured ..gamma..-decay branching ratio is GAMMA/sub ..gamma..//GAMMA = (54 +- 11) %. The proton decay branching ratio is found to be less than 4%.

We have measured the branching ratio for beta decay of the J/sup ..pi../ = 0/sup -/ state at 120 keV in /sup 16/N allowing us to infer a beta decay probability of ..lambda../sub ..beta../ = (0.45 +- 0.05) sec/sup -1/, in excellent agreement with recent calculations which include pion exchange corrections to the axial vector time component as an essential feature. When combined with the muon capture rate for the inverse reaction, our result implies g/sub p//g/sub A/ = 11 +- 2. .AE

The nature of neutrino mass is one of the friontier problems of fundamental physics. Neutrinoless Double Beta Decay (0νDBD) is a powerful tool to investigate the mass hierarchy and possible extensions of the Standard Model. CUORE is a 1‐Ton next generation experiment, made of 1000 Te bolometers, aiming at reaching a background of 0.01 (possibly 0.001) counts keV−1kg−1y−1 and therefore a mass sensitivity of few tens of meV The background contribution due to environmental neutrons, muon‐induced neutrons in the shieldings and external gamma is discussed. © 2007 American Institute of Physics