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This chapter introduces the history of range state legal regimes of relevance to pangolin conservation. It examines relevant, “hard” and “soft” international law and assesses their application to conserving pangolins. It details aspects of implementation of international law and the establishment of local laws to protect pangolins; in so doing, it also emphasises the need for cross border cooperation. The chapter then addresses complexities of conservation, from the local to cross-border levels within the poaching-trade life cycle: examining incentives, dis-incentives, deterrents and the wider nature of effective law enforcement. Finally, it scrutinizes deterrents at the higher, global level; advocating that wildlife crime must be regarded in a comparable vein to issues of national security because of its linkages with corruption, money-laundering and other types of syndicated, global crime. The chapter concludes by examining the relevance of the calls to tackle illegal wildlife trade by “following the money.”

Faith-based teachings on the environment have been identified as a potentially effective form of conservation outreach but one that remains largely untested. Indonesia contains 10% of the world’s tropical rainforests and is the most populous Muslim country. A faith-based approach to conservation could therefore yield significant conservation benefits here. Within Islam several key principles in the Qur’an underpin and outline the role of humans in nature conservation. Here, we report on a Darwin Initiative project component that sought to assess the applicability of Islamic teachings to conservation action inWestSumatra.Wedevelopedwater-conservation-themed sermons that were delivered by project-trained religious leaders in 10 mosques and nine Islamic boarding schools during the holy month of Ramadan. We conducted entry– exit questionnaire surveys to assess levels of concern, awareness and intent to act amongst male (n5 389) and female (n5 479) worshippers. The results revealed that greater attention should be paid to raising awareness of the linkages between Islam and conservation rather than on conservation principles alone, which were already adequately understood. This study provides the first insights into the important role that women could play within a faith-based project. Female respondents demonstrated greater knowledge and understanding of Islamic teachings about the environment and the services provided by watershed forests. They were also more likely to contribute to conservation activities, suggesting that future projects should seek to involve this often marginalized stakeholder group fully, as well as provide practical ways for men and women to transform words into action. Keywords Biodiversity, customary law, deforestation, ecosystem services, Indonesia, Islam, REDD, religion

Member States of the European Union are increasingly designating marine protected areas (MPAs) to meet globally agreed marine protection targets and regional commitments. A number of studies have examined the impact of the associated European policy on the representation of species and habitats but there is no comprehensive review of their combined impact on marine conservation in Europe. Here a systematic conservation planning framework is used to conduct such a review and compare the existing legislation to three elements of best practice, which are designed to identify MPA networks that achieve conservation goals whilst increasing the likelihood of implementation. In particular, this review investigates the extent to which legislation: (i) translates broad policy goals into explicit targets; (ii) incorporates socio-economic data into the planning process; and (iii) requires a social assessment. Whilst this legislation has widespread political support and has underpinned the rapid expansion of MPA networks, this review shows it largely fails to incorporate these key components from systematic conservation planning. Therefore, if European approaches to marine conservation are to fulfil their goal of halting marine biodiversity loss, it is essential they link existing policy frameworks with transparent strategies that account for local conditions and support implementation.

The first aim of the chapter on leadership and listening: inspiration for conservation mission and advocacy is to encourage conservation practitioners to take seriously their duty to engage sensitively with diverse faith communities (from local to global) and with their leaders (non-political as well as political), and to temper the sense of urgency with the cultural awareness necessary to negotiate effectively. The second aim is to emphasize that conservation is not the sole preserve of the professional conservation biologist. Indeed, the need to maintain a stable balance between the diversity of life and human activities has been recognized by others quite independently, and has been built into the foundations of custom, cultures and belief throughout the world. Different cultures might express the need for environmental responsibility and ethical action in different ways.

In situ conservation is central to contemporary global biodiversity protection and is the predominant emphasis of international regulation and funding strategies. Ex situ approaches, in contrast, have been relegated to a subsidiary role and their direct contributions to conservation have been limited. We draw on a variety of sources to make the case for an enhanced role for ex situ conservation. We note the advances occurring within institutions specializing in ex situ conservation and stress that, although much remains to be done, many constraints are being addressed. We argue that the evidence of increasing extinction rates, exacerbated by climate change, challenges the wisdom of a heavy dependence on in situ strategies and necessitates increased development of ex situ approaches. A number of different techniques that enable species and their habitats tosurvive should now be explored. These could build on the experience of management systems that have already demonstrated the effective integration of in situ and ex situ techniques and hybrid approaches. For organizations specializing in ex situ conservation to become more effective, however, they will require tangible support from the institutions of global biodiversity governance. Resistance is anticipated because in situ conservation is entrenched through powerful groups and organizations that exert influence on global conservation policy and facilitate the flow of funding. The chasm that has traditionally divided in situ and ex situ approaches may diminish as approaches are combined. Moreover, the relentless loss of the ‘wild’ may soon render the in situ / ex situ distinction misleading, or even obsolete. Keywords Botanical gardens, captive breeding, climate

There is an epistemological gulf between animal welfare and nature conservation that has, for the most part, frustrated a practical working relationship. Welfare components are scarce in international wildlife management law and are typically subordinate to conservation objectives. However, predictions concerning the combined effect of climate change and biodiversity decline describe a shrinking of the ‘wild’ and a reduction of natural habitats. The necessary conservation responses to this may force more species into controlled conditions and increase the need for conservation interventions that have an impact on the welfare of animals. In these circumstances the need to inject compassion into conservation law and policy becomes much greater. This article explores the trajectory of conservation and welfare legislation in the context of predicted climate changes and in so doing foresees the need for a more comprehensive and sophisticated international regulatory regime setting out animal welfare standards to support future conservation strategies. Keywords: wild animal welfare, conservation, international law, climate change, CITES

The relentless loss of biological diversity, which will have a direct impact on human society and degrade ecosystem buffers against the extremes of climate perturbation, requires a strong global governance response. Of the numerous international legal instruments relating to the protection of nature, the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) is the most comprehensive. This paper examines its current emphasis on global biodiversity targets to extend our understanding of its trajectory, and its evolving nature as an instrument of global governance. We review CBD documents, and early examinations of its emergent character, in the context of the distinction between hard and soft law approaches, and combine analysis on the issue of targets from the literature on development, climate change and conservation biology. We emphasise that the CBD, created as a hard law instrument with a framework character, had the clear facility to develop subsidiary hard law instruments in the form of protocols but has not significantly followed this route. We document how its approach – which has been typically ‘soft’, as exemplified by its focus on global biodiversity targets which are not backed up by obligations – suggests it operates de facto as policy rather than an instrument requiring state action. The adoption of global targets has parallels with other initiatives within global governance and may influence international political agendas, but they have failed to provide practical instruments for national implementation. Conditions may now exist for the CBD to develop focussed hard legal instruments in specific areas of its wide remit that support realistic targets.

Biodiversity conservation and poverty alleviation both have moral agendas. World religions have historically advocated ethical and moral codes of conduct, which can be supportive of these objectives. But can religions play a direct role in conservation and development? We examine the potential of religions in facilitating biodiversity conservation and poverty alleviation. A quantitative analysis of countries represented within Conservation International's list of Biodiversity Hotspots suggests a high level of plurality of religious following, but also a significant need for economic development and environmental conservation. Although attitudes of religions toward conservation and development vary widely, and some fundamentalist elements within religions can contradict moral agendas of conservation and development, we suggest that partnerships between conservation and development organizations and mainstream, as well as minor, faith groups might provide a positive force. Such partnerships can render greater public legitimacy and provide capability to mobilize mass support for biodiversity conservation and poverty alleviation.

The decline of biological diversity continues at speed and the consequent degradation of habitats and ecosystem structures, coupled with climate change, may constitute one of the greatest challenges that human civilisation has ever faced. The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) was created to facilitate the reversing of biodiversity loss. Although a hard convention, its strategy has been to rely primarily on non-obligatory instruments in the form of targets to achieve its objectives. The CBD’s 2010 targets were not achieved. In November 2010 in Nagoya the 10th conference of its parties was held and, among other outputs, new targets were agreed and one new hard law protocol was finalised. This article examines these principal outputs and evaluates their capacity to fulfil the new CBD vision: ‘Living in Harmony with Nature’.

International trade in wildlife is a major threat to biodiversity conservation. CITES, the Convention on\ud International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, is the primary mechanism for maintaining\ud sustainability in international wildlife trade. Although a comparatively well-designed legal instrument, CITES has been criticised because of its emphasis on regulatory measures and disregard for the economic reality of wildlife trade. Through means of a case study on the trade in pangolins (Pholidota: Manidae) in Asia, we evaluate the CITES approach to controlling trade and demonstrate significant areas to be addressed. These arise because CITES fails to accurately monitor supply, particularly where trade is illegal, it fails to consider the impact of trade controls in realistic terms, and it does little to consider the complex nature of demand or contend with changing market dynamics. To more effectively manage trade we argue that reforms are needed within CITES. Specifically, we highlight improved monitoring of supply (by accounting for illegal and legal trade) and of demand and prices for wildlife (through national wildlife consumption surveys). This information would generate a more holistic understanding of wildlife trade and, if integrated with the Convention’s existing trade database, would allow a more realistic evaluation of the performance of trade controls, and could inform decision-making and the implementation of interventions which go beyond regulation and address demand directly. In a world\ud of rapid economic and social change understanding markets and addressing demand as well as supply is essential to conserving the world’s trade threatened species.

The gulf between ethical propositions of animal welfare and the scientific basis of wildlife conservation has, at times, impeded a practical working relationship between the two (Harrop 2003). Indeed, quite often the two disciplines are capable of looking in different directions. The conservationist fixes on the species and its population status whilst the welfarist focuses on any animal, regardless of its conservation status, that is phylogenetically sophisticated enough to be capable of suffering. In consequence, welfare components are rare in international wildlife management law and are restricted to being subordinate to conservation objects (Harrop 1997, 2010). Nevertheless, the two disciplines are moving closer in many ways with the development of scientific indicators of welfare and also the need to refine the principal drivers of conservation strategies which must ultimately derive from an ethical objective. In this connection, the recent review of the CBD's strategy at Nagoya founded its new targets on a vision of ‘Living in Harmony With Nature’ (Harrop 2011c). Such an achievement would probably be a first for humanity and an utterly impractical aspiration. However, I would like to construe this vision, with the freedom of poetic licence, as conceiving both a materially and ethically harmonious future for humans and animals.

Many protected area (PA) systems have developed in response to socio-economic and aesthetic criteria and need to be modified to increase their conservation value. National gap analyses are an important step in describing and addressing this problem, so we sought to determine the representativeness of English PAs devoted to biodiversity conservation by using Natural Areas (NAs), elevation and PA boundary data. We found that National Nature Reserves (NNRs) and Sites of Special Scientific Interests (SSSIs) cover only 6.3% of England and are generally small, with respective median areas of 1.1 and 0.2 km2. The English PA system under-represents lowland areas and provides a median level of 2.5% protection for the NA types, with seventy nine per cent of NA types having less than 10% protection. Therefore, we suggest that England's PA system needs to be expanded, although this would probably entail modification of existing legislation to increase involvement by landowners. We also compare our results with previous appraisals that used species distribution record data and suggest that landscape-level analyses may give a more accurate and less positive assessment.

(2003). From Cartel to Conservation and on to Compassion: Animal Welfare and the International Whaling Commission. Journal of International Wildlife Law & Policy: Vol. 6, No. 1-2, pp. 79-104.

(2001). Comparing different national regulatory approaches to the practice of hunting wild animals with dogs. Journal of International Wildlife Law & Policy: Vol. 4, No. 3, pp. 239-256.

The development of laws at both national and international level dealing with the welfare of wild animals has been slow. In 1994 the European Community agreed a Regulations banning the use of leg-hold traps but import bans were postponed following the threat of legal challenge by the US and Canada under GATT and WTO. The subsequent legal and policy history reveals important insights into the developments of international environmental standards where difficult ethical issues arise. The International Standards Organisation's attempts to devise agreed standards for humane trapping were frustrated by a consensus based approach and fundamental disagreement between interested parties. Their work was eventually confined to standards concerning trap testing methodology, thus avoiding difficult moral judgements and uncertainties. Eventually, negotiations between the European Community, Canada, the US, and the Russian Federation led in 1998 to two international agreements. These are the first such agreements to deal expressly with the welfare of wild animals, but can still be criticised as being over-concerned with the facilitation of trade.

The Brazil nut industry fits closely with the principal objectives of European policy on development co-operation (poverty reduction linked with environmental protection) and forest conservation (maintaining forest cover). However, European Regulation 1525-98 EC, which decreases acceptable levels of aflatoxins in Brazil nuts to 4 parts per billion, may cause a crash in the Brazil nut trade. Thus, European policies on food quality, development co-operation and forest conservation are likely to work in opposition. Brazil nut producer countries have questioned the legal basis of the Regulation in terms of scientific justification for the stricter limits on aflatoxin content and lack of conformity with international standards set by Codex Alimentarius. The EC has countered by calling for use of the precautionary principle. This paper documents the debate in the context of the World Trade Organisation’s Sanitary and Phytosanitary Agreement and discusses the implications for the relationship between agendas of trade, environment and sustainable development.

An analysis, particularly from the UK and European Community perspectives, of the way in which the law dealing with the conservation of species and habitats has the potential effect, in some cases, of frustrating the comprehensive preservation of biological diversity. It is proposed that this state of affairs may have come about through the emphasis of one species to the detriment of others or through the failure to address comprehensive inter-species and habitat relationships. One of the propositions is that the application of protection to specific species, through conservation and wild animal welfare provisions, has been implemented in an arbitrary manner in the context of biodiversity preservation or in terms of an animal's level of sentiency or position on the phylogenetic scale. Another proposition is that the law has failed to protect and preserve the 'commonplace' in biodiversity and thus risks losing key components of ecosystems. Finally, the analysis examines the way in which traditional practices such as hunting with hounds may contribute to or frustrate biodiversity preservation.

Various states (and groups of states such as the European Community) have adopted legislation designed to raise standards of animal welfare in many areas including agriculture, companion animals, experimentation and testing, transport, and hunting and trapping methods. Much of this legislation has resulted from extensive lobbying and intense political wrangling. Where the legislation affects animals as products (or animal derivative products such as their pelts or their meat), legislators frequently resort to external facing trade measures to support the moral stance taken in the legislative instrument. At this point potential conflicts with the precepts of the multilateral trade regime operated by the World Trade Organisation arise. The extent to which the relevant provisions in the WTO portfolio of agreements (and the predecessor text of the GATT 1947) assist the cause of animal welfare is limited by both the texts themselves and the narrow interpretation of those texts by WTO/ GATT dispute pan...

(1998). The agreements on international humane trapping standards ‐background, critique and the texts. Journal of International Wildlife Law & Policy: Vol. 1, No. 3, pp. 387-394.

Aim : The species–area relationship (SAR) is increasingly being used to set conservation targets for habitat types when designing protected area networks. This approach is transparent and scientifically defensible, but there has been little research on how it is affected by data quality and quantity. Location : English Channel. Methods : We used a macrobenthic dataset containing 1314 sampling points and assigned each point to its associated habitat type. We then used the SAR-based approach and tested whether this was influenced by changes in (i) the number of sampling points used to generate estimates of total species richness for each habitat type; (ii) the nonparametric estimator used to calculate species richness; and (iii) the level of habitat classification employed. We then compared our results with targets from a similar national-level study that is currently being used to identify Marine Conservation Zones in the UK. Results : We found that targets were affected by all of the tested factors. Sample size had the greatest impact, with specific habitat targets increasing by up to 45% when sample size increased from 50 to 300. We also found that results based on the Bootstrap estimator of species richness, which is the most widely used for setting targets, were more influenced by sample size than the other tested estimators. Finally, we found that targets were higher when using broader habitat classification levels or a larger study region. However, this could also be a sample size effect because these larger habitat areas generally contained more sampling points. Main conclusions : Habitat targets based on the SAR can be strongly influenced by sample size, choice of richness estimator and the level of habitat classification. Whilst setting habitat targets using best-available data should play a key role in conservation planning, further research is needed to develop methods that better account for sampling effort.

Many natural habitats exist on privately owned land outside protected areas1, but few governments can afford to enforce or subsidize conservation of this biodiversity. Even in some developed countries, conservation subsidy schemes have only achieved limited success2,3,4. Fortunately, some landowners may be willing to accept management costs in return for other benefits5, although this remains controversial when it involves the killing of charismatic species. For example, participants in British field sports, such as fox hunting and game-bird shooting, may voluntarily conserve important habitats that are required by quarry species6,7,8. Here we report results from a multidisciplinary study that addressed this issue by focusing on three sites across central England. We found that landowners participating in field sports maintained the most established woodland and planted more new woodland and hedgerows than those who did not, despite the equal availability of subsidies. Therefore, voluntary habitat management appears to be important for biodiversity conservation in Britain. Current debates on the future of field sports in Britain, and similar activities globally, may benefit from considering their utility as incentives to conserve additional habitat on private land.

Reconciling the views of animal ethicists and scientific conservationists meets epistemological problems (Perry & Perry, 2008). Indeed, bridging the divide between animal ethics and animal welfare science can be a difficult enough task, even without the added complication of animal conservation (Fraser,1999). Once animals reach a minimum level of phylo-genetic sophistication that is assumed to give rise to a capacity to suffer, they can be attributed rights. Furthermore, their status can be measured with reference to their sentience, which in turn can require animals to be considered on an individual basis. By contrast, the conservation scientist often has a very ifferent perspective and only needs to focus attention on individual animals when deploying research methods that require counting or tagging individual animals, or where a population has been reduced to very small numbers. Consequently, when conservation scientists descend below habitats or ecosystem diversity, or rise above genetic diversity, their lowest common denominator is most likely to be at the species, subspecies or population levels. Given these different perspectives, this chapter first analyzes the relationship between animal welfare concerns and conservation strategies and, second, seeks to prescribe scope for trade-offs where the two perspectives are in conflict.

The United Nations Food and Agriculture Organisation (UN FAO) is examining mechanisms to protect the diversity of traditional agricultural systems operating around the world. The project is entitled GIAHS—Globally Important Agricultural Heritage Systems. This article, being the first of two dealing with GIAHS, is based on a report written by the author for the UN FAO in August 2005.2 It analyzes the international legal and policy matrix to assess the level of existing support for GIAHS and to ascertain the gaps in that support. This article focuses on conservation and land tenure and the second will examine intellectual property rights, trade issues, and potential mechanisms to secure the persistence of GIAHS.\ud The approach taken is to deal with particularly relevant aspects of the international regulatory regime rather than to iterate comprehensive details that might, perforce, encompass considerable quantities of text concerned\ud with marginally relevant instruments. Further, there are a number of soft instruments that are not mentioned or dealt with in any detail herein but which support the concept of GIAHS. These are not ignored through lack of value; rather, they have given rise to other expressions of their principles in subsequent instruments, which are dealt with herein. An example of this is the World Charter for Nature,3 which contains text supportive of the concept of GIAHS and which has acted as the foundation for development of an enlightened international approach to the human relationship with the natural world. There are also many instruments functioning at the regional level that are beyond the scope of this analysis.4 For the present, it is appropriate to indicate that regional law and policy will be relevant in context-specific cases\ud as GIAHS sites are established and prior analysis of regional and national laws and policies will be required in each case.

The eastern English Channel, the narrow channel of water separating northern France and southeast England is an area of intense human use of the array of resources concentrated into its relative small area. The vulnerability of living resources and their habitats brought together French and British maritime experts within a common project (called CHARM): to create an atlas of marine resource habitats in the eastern English Channel so as to provide planners and decision-makers with the necessary information to help managing the use of its living and non-living resources. This multidisciplinary and richly illustrated atlas provides abundant information on the legal framework and physical environment; benthic invertebrates, fish and their habitats; fishing activities; and a first attempt at developing a trophic network model (using ECOPATH software) and a marine conservation planning exercise (using MARXAN software, at a spatial resolution of 25 km(2)). Although most of the data used were collected elsewhere, some were collected especially for the project. Similarly, most of the analyses performed on the data where entirely original for this geographical area. The CHARM atlas has significantly improved the knowledge about the eastern Channel while contributing to the recognition that such holistic or multidisciplinary approaches to exploited marine systems are necessary to efficiently and durably manage their resources use., La Manche orientale, ce bras de mer qui sépare l’Angleterre de la France, est une zone très riche d’un point de vue écologique et soumise à une forte utilisation anthropique d’une gamme de ressources concentrées sur une superficie relativement faible. La fragilité des ressources marines vivantes et leurs habitats a rassemblé des experts maritimes français et britanniques autour d’un projet commun (nommé CHARM) dans le but de réaliser un atlas des habitats des ressources marines de laManche orientale. Cet atlas contient les informations nécessaires aux planificateurs et décideurs pour une meilleure gestion des ressources marines, vivantes ou non. Dans ce document pluridisciplinaire, richement illustré, on peut trouver des informations sur le cadre juridique et l’environnement, les invertébrés benthiques, les poissons et leurs habitats ; les activités de pêche ; et également sur le développement d’un modèle de réseau trophique (utilisant le logiciel ECOPATH) et un premier exercice de planification spatiale de la conservation (utilisant le logiciel MARXAN, à une résolution spatiale de 25 km2). Bien que la plupart des données aient été collectées en dehors du projet, certaines l’ont été spécialement pour le projet. De même, la plupart des analyses faites sur ces données sont entièrement inédites pour cette zone géographique. L’atlas CHARM contribue de façon significative à une meilleure connaissance de la Manche orientale tout en démontrant la nécessité de développer ce genre d’approche intégrée ou pluridisciplinaire sur les milieux marins exploités, afin de fournir les connaissances scientifiques nécessaires pour gérer efficacement et de manière durable l’utilisation de leur ressources.

If it is to have a long-term effect, applied biodiversity conservation must take account of human needs for space, recreation and economic improvement. Those who would seek to create novel master-plans to conserve biodiversity must also acknowledge that the world is not so polarized that those who would conserve biodiversity sit on one side of the line and those who would create an endless, sterile desert over the Earth sit on the other. Indeed, it is often the case that the exploiters of the Earth’s resources, whether for irrelevant, selfish or altruistic reasons, have discovered subtle means of preserving their source of wealth or recreation — the goose that lays the golden eggs. The result need not be a compromise-killing the goosenowdoes not provide long-term wealth — it does not even provide more than a meal for today. However, to discover new solutions we need to analyse a range of interests almost as diverse and complex as the dynamics which support the target biodiversity. A full and maintain knowledge, innovations and practices of indigenous and local communities embodying traditional lifestyles relevant for the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity.