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Regulation of neuronal NMDA receptor (NMDAR) is critical in synaptic transmission and plasticity. Protein kinase C (PKC) promotes NMDAR trafficking to the cell surface via interaction with NMDAR-associated proteins (NAPs). Little is known, however, about the NAPs that are critical to PKC-induced NMDAR trafficking. Here, we showed that calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII) could be a NAP that mediates the potentiation of NMDAR trafficking by PKC. PKC activation promoted the level of autophosphorylated CaMKII and increased association with NMDARs, accompanied by functional NMDAR insertion, at postsynaptic sites. This potentiation, along with PKC-induced long term potentiation of the AMPA receptor-mediated response, was abolished by CaMKII antagonist or by disturbing the interaction between CaMKII and NR2A or NR2B. Further mutual occlusion experiments demonstrated that PKC and CaMKII share a common signaling pathway in the potentiation of NMDAR trafficking and long-term potentiation (LTP) induction. Our results revealed that PKC promotes NMDA receptor trafficking and induces synaptic plasticity through indirectly triggering CaMKII autophosphorylation and subsequent increased association with NMDARs.

Glycine in the hippocampus can exert its effect on both synaptic NMDA receptors (NMDARs) and extrasynaptic functional glycine receptors (GlyRs) via distinct binding sites. Previous studies have reported that glycine induces long-term potentiation (LTP) through the activation of synaptic NMDARs. However, little is known about the potential role of the activated GlyRs that are largely located in extrasynaptic regions. We report here that relatively high levels of glycine achieved either by exogenous glycine application or by the elevation of endogenous glycine accumulation with an antagonist of the glycine transporter induced long-term depression (LTD) of excitatory postsynaptic currents (EPSCs) in hippocampal CA1 pyramidal neurons. The co-application of glycine with the selective GlyR antagonist strychnine changed glycine-induced LTD (Gly-LTD) to LTP. Blocking the postsynaptic GlyR-gated net chloride flux by manipulating intracellular chloride concentrations failed to elicit any changes in EPSCs. These results suggest that GlyRs are involved in Gly-LTD. Furthermore, this new form of chemical LTD was accompanied by the internalization of postsynaptic AMPA receptors and required the activation of NMDARs. Therefore, our present findings reveal an important function of GlyR activation and modulation in gating the direction of synaptic plasticity.

According to the effect of the human joints and the motion characteristics of the models’ footstep, combining with the distribution condition of degree of freedom of biped robots lower extremity structure in and abroad, we determine the number of the degree of freedom of robots legs is 12. Hip joint which has the characteristics of left and right axial rotation at horizontal direction, anteroposterior axis rotation and vertical axial rotation has 3 degrees of freedom. Ankle joint has 2 degrees of freedom which can rotate in left, right, pre and post directions is similar with the human ankle. Knee joint has a degree of joint and it extend the legs. The key of the design of humanoid robots is the joints design. The design of degrees of freedom of the joint is very important for whether the robots can walk successfully.

A runoff-sequence contains many frequencies, from the point of the wavelet transfor- mation, they are included in different wavelet coefficients. Therefore, when a smooth wavelet function is used, changes in multi-time scale and jump characteristics of precipitation time series have been probed the tendency. Wavelet transform can clearly demonstrate all kinds of characteristics of precipitation runoff series: the strength and distribution of time scales. The monthly data used in this paper comes from Guidei hydrology station of Yellow River (1919-1994) and Yichang hydrology station of Yangtze River (1946-1976), and the yearly ones from Yichang hydrology station (1882-1984).

The function of ATP-sensitive potassium (KATP) channels in nigrostriatal pathway in Parkinson's disease (PD) was studied by employing a novel KATP channel opener iptakalim (Ipt). Apomorphine-induced rotation behavior test and microdialysis experiment were carried out in unilateral 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) lesioned rats. Behavior test showed that systemic administration of Ipt failed to significantly alleviate apomorphine-induced rotation in unilateral 6-OHDA-lesioned PD model rats. However, using in vivo microdialysis in this PD model rats, it was found that Ipt could increase extracellular dopamine levels in the lesioned side of the striatum and decrease dopamine levels in the intact side of the striatum. Meanwhile, Ipt had no influence on glutamate levels in the intact side, but it did decrease glutamate levels in the lesioned side of the striatum of PD rats. Additionally, in primary cultured rat astrocytes, 6-OHDA decreased overall glutamate uptake activity, but this decrease was recovered and glutamate uptake activity was restored by the opening of KATP channels induced by Ipt and pinacidil. The classical KATP channel blocker glibenclamide completely abolished the effects of Ipt and pinacidil. The present study suggests that (i) the function of KATP channels in the lesioned and intact nigrostriatal pathway is different in unilateral 6-OHDA-lesioned PD model rats. (ii) KATP channels regulate extracellular neurotransmitter levels in the striatum of unilateral 6-OHDA-lesioned rats and may play neuroprotective roles due to their effects on glutamate transporters.

Our previous studies revealed that iptakalim, a novel ATP-sensitive potassium channel opener, has a significant neuroprotective function against ischemia in vivo or rotenone-induced neurotoxicity in vitro. To investigate the potential pharmaceutical benefit of ATP-sensitive potassium channel openers on neurodegenerative diseases, we studied the effects of iptakalim and diazoxide, a selective mitochondrial ATP-sensitive potassium channel opener, on the rotenone-induced nigrostriatal degeneration in rats. Iptakalim (1.5 mg/kg/day, orally) or diazoxide (1.5 mg/kg/day, orally) alone was administered to rats for 3 days, and then for 4 weeks was used daily with an injection of rotenone (2.5 mg/kg/day, subcutaneously) 1 hr later each time. The results showed that rotenone-infused rats exhibited parkinsonian symptoms and had dopamine depletion in the striatum and substantia nigra. Pretreatment with iptakalim or diazoxide prevented rotenone-induced catalepsy and the reduction of striatum dopamine contents. Moreover, iptakalim and diazoxide reduced the enzymatic activities and mRNA levels of inducible nitric oxide synthase elicited by chronic administration of rotenone. These neuroprotective effects of iptakalim and diazoxide were abolished by 5-hydroxydecanoate, a selective mitochondrial ATP-sensitive potassium channel blocker. In conclusion, our data suggested that mitochondrial ATP-sensitive potassium channels might play a key role in preventing both parkinsonian symptoms and neurochemistry alterations induced by rotenone in rats. The selective activation of mitochondrial ATP-sensitive potassium channels may provide a new therapeutic strategy for prevention and treatment of neurodegenerative disorders such as Parkinson's disease.

A new fluoropolymer is proposed as the basis of a novel class of sensors. The devices are based on selective chromogenic reactions and in situ long-path optical absorbance measurement. The polymer is transparent from 200 to 2000 nm and has the lowest known refractive index (RI) of any synthetic polymer. The RI is less than that of water. A tube of this material, filled with an aqueous solution (or virtually any other liquid), behaves as a liquid core optical fiber. As a result, long-path length optical cells are possible without significant loss of light. The material is highly permeable to a number of trace gases of environmental interest. Relative to common poly(tetrafluoroethylene) (PTFE)-type Teflon, the new amorphous fluoropolymer (Teflon AF 2400) is more than 3 orders of magnitude more permeable to many gases. If a Teflon AF tube is filled with a reagent that responds to a gaseous analyte by undergoing a change that is spectroscopically detectable, an unusually versatile, sensitive, and inexpensive ...

Background and Purpose— We characterized the differential effects of glycine at different levels in the induction of postischemic long-term potentiation, as well as in the neuronal damage induced by focal ischemia. Methods— Whole-cell patch clamp recordings were obtained from rat hippocampal slice preparations. In vitro ischemia and postischemic long-term potentiation were induced by oxygen and glucose deprivation. In vivo ischemia was induced by transient middle cerebral artery occlusion. Results— In both in vitro and in vivo ischemia models, glycine at low level exerts deleterious effects in postischemic long-term potentiation and ischemic neuronal injury by modulation of the N-methyl- d -aspartate receptor coagonist site; whereas glycine at high level exerts neuroprotective effects by activation of glycine receptor and subsequent differential regulation of N-methyl- d -aspartate receptor subunit components. Conclusions— Our results provide a molecular basis for the dual roles of glycine in ischemic injury through distinct mechanisms, and they suggest that glycine receptors could be a potential target for clinical treatment of stroke.

In vivo experience induces changes in synaptic NMDA receptor (NMDAR) subunit components, which are correlated with subsequent modifications of synaptic plasticity. However, little is known about how these subunit changes regulate the induction threshold of subsequent plasticity. At hippocampal Schaffer collateral-CA1 synapses, we first examined whether a recent history of neuronal activity could affect subsequent synaptic plasticity through its actions on NMDAR subunit components. We found that prior activity history produced by priming stimulations (PSs) across a wide range of frequencies (1-100 Hz) could induce bidirectional changes in the NR2A/NR2B ratio, which governs the threshold for subsequent long-term potentiation/long-term depression (LTP/LTD). Manipulating the NR2A/NR2B ratio through partial NR2 subunit blockade mimicked the PS regulation of the LTP/LTD threshold. Our results demonstrate that activity-dependent changes in the NR2A/NR2B ratio can be critical factors in metaplastic regulation of the LTP/LTD threshold.

Although an increasing number of studies have demonstrated the plasticity of NMDA receptor-mediated synaptic transmission, little is known about the molecular mechanisms that underlie this neurologically important process. In a study of NMDAR-mediated synaptic responses in hippocampal Schaffer-CA1 synapses whose AMPA receptor (AMPAR) activity is totally blocked, we uncovered differences between the trafficking mechanisms that underlie the long-term potentiation (LTP) and long-term depression (LTD) that can be induced in these cells under these conditions. The LTP-producing protocol failed to induce a change in the amplitude of NMDAR-mediated postsynaptic currents (NMDAR EPSCs) in the first 5-10 min, but induced gradual enhancement of NMDAR EPSCs thereafter that soon reached a stable magnitude. This "slow" LTP of NMDAR EPSCs (LTP(NMDA)) was blocked by inhibiting exocytosis or actin polymerization in postsynaptic cells. By contrast, LTD of NMDAR EPSCs (LTD(NMDA)) was immediately inducible, and, although it was blocked by the actin stabilizer, it was unaffected by exocytosis or endocytosis inhibitors. Furthermore, concomitant changes in the decay time of NMDAR EPSCs suggested that differential switches in NR2 subunit composition accompanied LTP(NMDA) and LTD(NMDA), and these changes were blocked by the calcium buffer BAPTA or an mGluR antagonist. Our results suggest that LTP(NMDA) and LTD(NMDA) utilize different NMDAR trafficking pathways and express different ratios of NMDAR subunits on the postsynaptic surface.

The particle swarm optimization was applied in BP neural network training. It reasonably confirms threshold and connection weight of neural network, and improves capability of solving problems in realities. Meanwhile, PSO-BP neural network is applied into classification of fabric defect. The method of orthogonal wavelet transform was used to decompose monolayer from fabric image. And the sub-images of horizontal and vertical direction are extracted to represent respectively the textures of fabric in warp and weft. Compared classification of PSO-BP neural network to classification of BP neural network, it is shown that PSO-BP neural network achieves favorable results.

Particle swarm optimization was applied in BP neural network training. It reasonably confirms threshold and connection weight of neural network, and improves capability of solving problems in realities. Meanwhile, PSO-BP neural network is applied into classification of fabric defect. The method of orthogonal wavelet transform was used to decompose monolayer from fabric image. And the sub-images of horizontal and vertical direction are extracted to represent respectively the textures of fabric in warp and weft. Compared classification of PSO-BP neural network to classification of BP neural network, it is shown that PSO-BP neural network achieves favorable results.

To test the effect of intermittent exposure to high concentrations of glucose on HIT-T15 cells.The HIT-T15 cells (pancreatic beta cell lines) were exposed to 16.7 mmol/L of glucose for two hours, at an interval of three hours. Such intermittent exposure was repeated three times a day. Otherwise, the cells were exposed to 5.5 mmol/L of glucose. The control groups included continuing exposure to 5.5 mmol/L of glucose (normal control group) and continuing exposure to 16.7 mmol/L of glucose. The impact of N-acetyl-L-cysteine (NAC) was also tested in the groups with intermittent and continuing exposure to 16. 7 mmol/L of glucose. The insulin was detected by radioimmunoassay (RIA). The mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) was measured by laser scanning confocal microscope. The ATP levels of beta cells were examined by the luciferin-luciferase kit. The Malonaldehyde (MDA) was measured through thiobarbituric acid reaction (TBA). The intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) was observed by flow cytometry.The HIT-T15 cells exposed to intermittent and continuing high glucose secreted [(3.13 +/- 1.11) microIU/mLD and [(5.18 +/- 0. 95) microIU/mL] of insulin, significantly less than the control [(9.33 +/- 0.62) microIU/mL, P0.05]. The MDA and ROS levels increased while the ATP and MMP levels decreased significantly in the cells exposed to intermittent and continuing high glucose (P0.05). The cells exposed to intermittent high glucose produced more ROS than the cells exposed to continuing high glucose (P0.05).Exposure of HIT-T15 to high glucose leads to oxidative stress of mitochondrial. Intermittent exposure causes more serious stress than continuing exposure. Such response might be a result of decreased MMP level and ATP contents.

When irradiated, purple membrane from Halobacterium halobium oriented in a polyacrylamide gel produces a photocurrent. The correlation of the microsecond component (B2) of the photocurrent with the L-M optical transition was studied. It was found that the lifetimes of B2 and the L-M transition are identical over the entire pH range from 2.4 to 11.0 when measured in high salt (>5 mM CaCl 2 or >40 mM KCl). Changing the temperature from 10 to 35°C, or replacing the H 2 O with D 2 O maintains this correlation. The amplitude of B2 and the L-M transition are also correlated over the pH range where both of them can be represented as a single exponential. At high pH (>8), three exponentials were required to fit both the optical and photocurrent signals. Two of them are the previously described fast and slow components of M formation, but a new intermediate with a very fast lifetime, 0.3μs, was observed both in absorption (λ = 410 nm) and photocurrent measurements. The lifetimes of all three were found to be pH independent. This would exclude models for the L to M portion of the photocycle that explained its complex pH-dependent behavior as being due to a single pH-dependent rate constant. The area of B2, which is proportional to the number and the distance the charge moved during the transition, is almost constant from pH 5.0 to pH 8.0. It decreases to almost zero at pH 2.0 and pH 10.6 with pKs at 2.8 and 9.1. Because B2 is thought to normally reflect proton release from the membrane, this suggests at very low and high pH the photocycle does not pump protons. The pK at high pHs for the formation of the nonpumping photocycle is probably related to the formation of a new photocycle featuring the fast rising form of M.

Our previous studies revealed that activation of mitochondrial ATP-sensitive potassium channels exerted protective effects on rotenone-treated rats and cultured cells. The aim of the present study is to examine the potential therapeutic effects of iptakalim, an ATP-sensitive potassium-channel opener, and diazoxide, a selective mitochondrial ATP-sensitive potassium-channel opener, on Parkinsonian symptoms in rats induced by rotenone. Rats were treated with rotenone (2.5 mg/kg s.c.) daily for 4 wk. This treatment caused a depletion of dopamine in the striatum and substantia nigra. Behaviourally, rotenone-infused rats exhibit Parkinsonian symptoms. Catalepsy was estimated by a 9-cm bar test. Treatment with L-dopa (10 mg/kg.d p.o.), iptakalim (0.75, 1.5, 3.0 mg/kg.d p.o.) and diazoxide (3.0 mg/kg.d p.o.) for 2 wk improved behavioural dysfunction and elevated dopamine contents in the striatum and substantia nigra of rotenone-treated rats. Studies also found that iptakalim and diazoxide could reduce the enzymic activities and mRNA levels of inducible nitric oxide synthase elicited by chronic administration of rotenone. All neurorestorative effects by both iptakalim and diazoxide were abolished by 5-hydroxydecanoate, a selective mitochondrial ATP-sensitive potassium-channel blocker. Collectively, the data suggested that mitochondrial ATP-sensitive potassium channels play a key role in improving both Parkinsonian symptoms and neurochemistry alterations of rotenone model rats, and selective activation of mitochondrial ATP-sensitive potassium channels may provide a new therapeutic strategy for treatment of early Parkinson's disease.

The elimination, distribution, excretion of magnesium glycyrrhizinate (MG) after intravenous (i.v.) administration in rats, and the binding rate of MG to plasma protein were investigated. The concentrations of MG in plasma, tissue, and excretion of rats after i.v. administration of MG were measured using reversed-phase high performance liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC). The concentrations of MG in plasma declined in an apparent biexponential manner. The pharmacokinetic parameters from a two-compartment model analysis of plasma samples after i.v. administration of MG 30, 60, and 120 mg/kg-, were t(1/2beta) (min): 140, 180, and 240; AUC(0 approximately 18) (g x min x L(-1)): 10212, 15432, and 50321; CL (L x kg(-1) x min(-1)): 0.0025, 0.0039, and 0.0021, respectively. The drug administered as an iv injection, were mainly cumulated in the liver. When MG was administered to bile-duct cannulated rats, about 90% of i.v. dosed MG was excreted into bile under unchanged form within 24 h after administration. The average binding rate of MG to plasma protein was 87%. The experimental results showed that the distributional property of MG in the present rats study is beneficial to its liver protective activity and liver function improvement.

The first long pathlength fiber optic-based sensor system to measure pCO(2) in natural waters and the atmosphere is described. The sensor is based on a liquid-core (an indicator-HCO(3)(-)/CO(3)(2-) buffer solution) waveguide made of a low refractive index amorphous fluoropolymer tubing, the wall of which serves as a gas-permeable membrane to sense pCO(2) changes. The system detects the indicator absorbance changes when the liquid-core reaches CO(2) equilibrium with the surrounding sample. Theoretical calculations demonstrate that due to indicator buffer effects, increasing the optical pathlength is a more efficient way to obtain higher sensitivity than increasing the indicator concentration. Using an 18-cm cell with low indicator concentrations (10 muM), this system achieves a precision and an accuracy of +/-2-3 muatm in the pCO(2) range of 200-500 muatm. The sensor also features a response time (99%) of only 2 min for low-level (1000 muatm) pCO(2) measurements as a result of high CO(2) permeability of the amorphous fluoropolymer membrane. Field tests indicate that this new sensor is capable of handling both atmospheric and aquatic pCO(2) monitoring.

When cations are removed from the purple membrane of Halobacterium halobium it turns blue (λmax = 603 nm); continuous irradiation with intense red light (λ's ≥ 630 nm) converts this deionized blue membrane into a pink membrane (λmax ≈ 491 nm). The rate and extent of the transformation from the blue to the pink membrane is facilitated by the removal of the last twenty COOH-terminal amino acids of bacteriorhodopsin. While the chromophore of the blue membrane is a 32:68 mixture of the 13-cis and all-trans isomers of retinal, the chromophore of the pink membrane is 9-cis rectinal. The quantum efficiency of the pink to blue membrane photoconversion is relatively high compared with that of the blue to pink membrane photoconversion. Proton release is observed when the pink membrane is converted to the blue form, and proton uptake occurs during the reverse transition. Unlike the blue membrane, the absorbance maximum of the pink membrane is only slightly affected by cation addition at low pH and ionic strength.

The purple membrane of Halobacterium halobium will change to the blue membrane when the cations bound to the membrane are removed. Here we introduce a new method to remove the cations by applying a moderate potential (20 V) between two platinum electrodes in a chamber containing a purple membrane solution. The purple membrane is deposited on the anode where the cations are removed by the low pH near this electrode due to the electrolysis of water. The blue membrane made by this method seems identical with blue membrane made by other methods but it can be made more quickly and in large quantities.