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HIV-1 drug resistance (HIVDR) impedes treatment and control of HIV-1, especially in high-prevalence settings such as KwaZulu-Natal (KZN) province, South Africa. This study merged routine HIV-1 genotypic resistance test (GRT) data with Geographic Information Systems coordinates to assess patterns and geographic distribution of HIVDR in KZN, among ART-experienced adults with virological failure. We curated 3133 GRT records generated between 1 January 2018 and 30 June 2022, which includes the early phase of dolutegravir (DTG) rollout, of which 2735 (87.30%) had HIVDR. Of the 2735, major protease, nucleoside, and non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor mutations were detected in 41.24%, 84.97% and 88.08% of GRTs, respectively. Additional genotyping of HIV-1 integrase for 41/3133 (1.31%) GRTs showed that 17/41 (41.46%) had integrase strand transfer inhibitor resistance. Notably, of 26 patients on DTG with integrase genotyping, 9 (34.62%) had DTG-associated resistance mutations. Dual- or triple-class resistance was observed in four of every five GRTs. The odds of HIVDR increased significantly with age, with ≥60 years having 5 times higher odds of HIVDR compared to 18–29 years (p = 0.001). We identified geospatial differences in the burden of HIVDR, providing proof of concept that this could be used for data-driven public health decision making. Ongoing real-time HIVDR surveillance is essential for evaluating the outcomes of the updated South African HIV treatment programme.

South Africa rolled out dolutegravir (DTG) as first-line antiretroviral therapy (ART) in December 2019 to overcome high rates of pretreatment non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor drug resistance. In the context of transition to DTG-based ART, this study spatiotemporally analysed detectable HIV viral loads (VLs) prior to- and following DTG rollout in public-sector healthcare facilities in KwaZulu-Natal (KZN) province, the epicentre of the HIV epidemic in South Africa. We retrospectively curated a HIV VL database using de-identified routine VL data obtained from the National Health Laboratory Service for the period January 2018 to June 2022. We analysed trends in HIV viraemia and mapped median log10 HIV VLs per facility on inverse distance weighted interpolation maps. We used Getis-Ord Gi* hotspot analysis to identify geospatial HIV hotspots. We obtained 7,639,978 HIV VL records from 736 healthcare facilities across KZN, of which 1,031,171 (13.5%) had detectable VLs (i.e., VLs ≥400 copies/millilitre (mL)). Of those with detectable VLs, we observed an overall decrease in HIV VLs between 2018 and 2022 (median 4.093 log10 copies/mL; 95% confidence interval (CI) 4.087-4.100 to median 3.563 log10 copies/mL; CI 3.553-3.572), p

Monitoring of HIV drug resistance (HIVDR) remains critical for ensuring countries attain and sustain the global goals for ending HIV as a public health threat by 2030. On an individual patient level, drug resistance results assist in ensuring unnecessary treatment switches are avoided and subsequent regimens are tailored on a case-by-case basis, should resistance be detected. Although there is a disparity in access to HIVDR testing in high-income countries compared to low- and middle-income countries (LMICS), more LMICs have now included HIVDR testing for individual patient management in some groups of patients. In this review, we describe different strategies for surveillance as well as where HIVDR testing can be implemented for individual patient management. In addition, we briefly review available technologies for HIVDR testing in LMICs, including Sanger sequencing, next-generation sequencing, and some point-of-care options. Finally, we describe how South Africa has implemented HIVDR testing in the public sector.