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Indigenous crops also known as orphan crops are key contributors to food security, which is becoming increasingly vulnerable with the current trend of population growth and climate change. They have the major advantage that they fit well into the general socio-economic and ecological context of developing world agriculture. However, most indigenous crops did not benefit from the Green Revolution, which dramatically increased the yield of major crops such as wheat and rice. Here, we describe the Tef Improvement Project, which employs both conventional- and molecular-breeding techniques to improve tef—an orphan crop important to the food security in the Horn of Africa, a region of the world with recurring devastating famines. We have established an efficient pipeline to bring improved tef lines from the laboratory to the farmers of Ethiopia. Of critical importance to the long-term success of this project is the cooperation among participants in Ethiopia and Switzerland, including donors, policy makers, research institutions, and farmers. Together, European and African scientists have developed a pipeline using breeding and genomic tools to improve the orphan crop tef and bring new cultivars to the farmers in Ethiopia. We highlight a new variety, Tesfa, developed in this pipeline and possessing a novel and desirable combination of traits. Tesfa’s recent approval for release illustrates the success of the project and marks a milestone as it is the first variety (of many in the pipeline) to be released., Euphytica, 214 (2), ISSN:0014-2336, ISSN:1573-5060

Some secondary metabolites produced by fungi are carcinogenic, hepatotoxic, and/or cause birth defects in humans and animals. We developed and optimised bio-analytical tools for detection of metabo...

Vegetative desiccation tolerance, or the ability to survive the loss of ~95% relative water content (RWC), is rare in angiosperms, with these being commonly called resurrection plants. It is a complex multigenic and multi-factorial trait, with its understanding requiring a comprehensive systems biology approach. The aim of the current study was to conduct a label-free proteomic analysis of leaves of the resurrection plant Xerophyta schlechteri in response to desiccation. A targeted metabolomics approach was validated and correlated to the proteomics, contributing the missing link in studies on this species. Three physiological stages were identified: an early response to drying, during which the leaf tissues declined from full turgor to a RWC of ~80–70%, a mid-response in which the RWC declined to 40% and a late response where the tissues declined to 10% RWC. We identified 517 distinct proteins that were differentially expressed, of which 253 proteins were upregulated and 264 were downregulated in response to the three drying stages. Metabolomics analyses, which included monitoring the levels of a selection of phytohormones, amino acids, sugars, sugar alcohols, fatty acids and organic acids in response to dehydration, correlated with some of the proteomic differences, giving insight into the biological processes apparently involved in desiccation tolerance in this species.

Salinity is widespread environmental stress that poses great obstacles to rapeseed development and growth. Polyamines are key plant growth regulators that play a pivotal role in regulating salt tolerance. Rapeseed (

Background Garlic has been used for centuries for its flavour and health promoting properties that include protection against cancer. The vinyl disulfide-sulfoxide ajoene is one of the phytochemicals found in crushed cloves, hypothesised to act by S-thiolating reactive cysteines in target proteins. Methods Using our fluorescently labelled ajoene analogue called dansyl-ajoene, ajoene’s protein targets in MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells were tagged and separated by 2D electrophoresis. A predominant band was identified by MALDI-TOF MS/MS to be vimentin. Target validation experiments were performed using pure recombinant vimentin protein. Computational modelling of vimentin bound to ajoene was performed using Schrödinger and pKa calculations by Epik software. Cytotoxicity of ajoene in MDA-MB-231 and HeLa cells was measured by the MTT assay. The vimentin filament network was visualised in ajoene-treated and non-treated cells by immunofluorescence and vimentin protein expression was determined by immunoblot. The invasion and migration activity was measured by wound healing and transwell assays using wildtype cells and cells in which the vimentin protein had been transiently knocked down by siRNA or overexpressed. Results The dominant protein tagged by dansyl-ajoene was identified to be the 57 kDa protein vimentin. The vimentin target was validated to reveal that ajoene and dansyl-ajoene covalently bind to recombinant vimentin via a disulfide linkage at Cys-328. Computational modelling showed Cys-328 to be exposed at the termini of the vimentin tetramer. Treatment of MDA-MB-231 or HeLa cells with a non-cytotoxic concentration of ajoene caused the vimentin filament network to condense; and to increase vimentin protein expression. Ajoene inhibited the invasion and migration of both cancer cell lines which was found to be dependent on the presence of vimentin. Vimentin overexpression caused cells to become more migratory, an effect that was completely rescued by ajoene. Conclusions The garlic-derived phytochemical ajoene targets and covalently modifies vimentin in cancer cells by S-thiolating Cys-328. This interaction results in the disruption of the vimentin filament network and contributes to the anti-metastatic activity of ajoene in cancer cells.

Molecular techniques and phenotypic characterisation have been used to differentiate aflatoxigenic and atoxigenic Aspergillus flavus strains. However, there is a lack of a consistent and reliable tool for discrimination between these strains of A. flavus. Here we report, an optimised real-time qPCR-based tool for reliable differentiation between aflatoxigenic and atoxigenic strains of A. flavus. Accordingly, expression profiles and deletion patterns of genes responsible for aflatoxin production in five representative aflatoxigenic and atoxigenic A. flavus strains (KSM012, KSM014, HB021, HB026 and HB027) were examined using the optimised real-time qPCR tool. We observed that under induced conditions, aflP, aflS, aflR and aflO transcripts were the most upregulated genes across the tested isolates while aflS and aflO were always expressed in both induced and uninduced isolates. However, aflR and aflP did not give clear distinctions between non-toxin and toxin producing isolates. The deletion patterns were prominent for aflD and aflR whereas alfO, aflS and aflP had no deletions among the isolates. Significant variation in transcript abundance for aflD, aflR and aflS were observed for aflatoxigenic isolate KSM014 under induced and uninduced states. False detection of aflD gene transcript in atoxigenic strain KSM012 was evident in both induced and uninduced conditions. With the exception of KSM012, aflP gene did not exhibit significant variation in expression in the isolates between induced and uninduced conditions. One-way ANOVA and Post-test analysis for linear trends revealed that aflatoxin biosynthetic cluster genes show significant (P < 0.05) differences between atoxigenic and aflatoxigenic isolates. Our optimized qPCR-based tool reliably discriminated between aflatoxigenic and atoxigenic A. flavus isolates and could complement existing detection methods.

Maize (Zea mays L.) is a staple crop providing food security to millions of people in sub Saharan Africa. Fusarium verticillioides, an important fungal pathogen, infects maize causing &lsquo, Fusarium Ear Rot&rsquo, disease, which decreases maize kernel yield and the quality of the crop harvested. Currently, no African maize line is completely resistant to infection by F. verticillioides. This study investigated an African maize line, Zea mays CML144, infected with F. verticillioides. Analysis of morphological characteristics showed significant differences between mock-infected and infected plants. RNA-sequencing (RNA-seq) was conducted on plants 14 days post-inoculation to identify differentially expressed genes (DEGs) involved in F. verticillioides infection. Analysis of RNA-seq data revealed DEGs that were both significantly up- and down-regulated in the infected samples compared to the mock-infected control. The maize TPS1 and cytochrome P450 genes were up-regulated, suggesting that kauralexins were involved in the CML144 defense response. This was substantiated by kauralexin analyses, which showed that kauralexins, belonging to class A and B, accumulated in infected maize tissue. Gene ontology terms relating to response to stimulus, chemical stimulus and carbohydrate metabolic processes were enriched, and the genes belonging to these GO-terms were down-regulated. Quantitative real-time PCR was performed on selected DEGs and measurement of phytoalexin accumulation validated the RNA-seq data and GO-analysis results. A comparison of DEGs from this study to DEGs found in F. verticillioides (ITEM 1744) infected susceptible (CO354) and resistant (CO441) maize genotypes in a previous study, matched 18 DEGs with 17 up-regulated and one down-regulated, respectively. This is the first transcriptomic study on the African maize line, CML144, in response to F. verticillioides infection.

Maize is a socially and economically important crop in Africa (and worldwide) that is severely affected by many fungal pathogens. The pathogen Fusarium verticillioides can infect all maize tissue and causes Fusarium ear rot (FER), a disease that greatly reduces quantity and quality of annual maize yields. In response to fungal infection, maize produces kauralexins and zealexins, which are antimicrobial terpenoid phytoalexins that directly reduce the growth of many fungal pathogens including F. verticillioides. This research evaluates the induction of kauralexins and zealexins in F. verticillioides-inoculated sub-tropical maize lines. CML444 (moderately-resistant to FER) and CML144 (susceptible to FER) accumulated both phytoalexin types in seedling roots in response to seed inoculation with F. verticillioides. CML444 control roots also had higher kauralexin levels in comparison to CML144, suggesting that kauralexin accumulation may be primed for rapid up-regulation in CML444 following fungal infection. The an2 maize mutant, which displays reduced expression of the key kauralexin biosynthetic gene ZmAn2, accumulated decreased root levels of kauralexins and zealexins following F. verticillioides inoculation in comparison to wildtype line W22, confirming that both kauralexins and zealexins play a role in the resistance response to seedling disease caused by F. verticillioides.

Maize is a globally important crop that is affected by fungal diseases causing yield losses annually. One fungus, Fusarium verticillioides, causes the disease Fusarium Ear Rot (FER), which reduces grain quality and produces mycotoxins called fumonisins that are harmful to animals and humans. As chemical fungicides are expensive and have negative environmental effects, the use of biological control agents (BCAs) has become favourable in recent years. A commonly used fungal BCA is Trichoderma spp., which has been effective in reducing disease incidence as well as enhancing crop growth. In this study, T. asperellum was isolated from an African maize line and was shown to significantly inhibit growth of F. verticillioides in an in vitro competition assay.

Aspergillus flavus colonisation of maize can produce mycotoxins that are detrimental to both human and animal health. Screening of maize lines, resistant to A. flavus infection, together with a biocontrol strategy, could help minimize subsequent aflatoxin contamination. We developed a qPCR assay to measure A. flavus biomass and showed that two African maize lines, GAF4 and KDV1, had different fungal loads for the aflatoxigenic isolate (KSM014), fourteen days after infection. The qPCR assay revealed no significant variation in A. flavus biomass between diseased and non-diseased maize tissues for GAF4, while KDV1 had a significantly higher A. flavus biomass (p &lt, 0.05) in infected shoots and roots compared to the control. The biocontrol strategy using an atoxigenic isolate (KSM012) against the toxigenic isolate (KSM014), showed aflatoxin production inhibition at the co-infection ratio, 50:50 for both maize lines (KDV1 &gt, 99.7% and GAF &ge, 69.4%), as confirmed by bioanalytical techniques. As far as we are aware, this is the first report in Kenya where the biomass of A. flavus from maize tissue was detected and quantified using a qPCR assay. Our results suggest that maize lines, which have adequate resistance to A. flavus, together with the appropriate biocontrol strategy, could limit outbreaks of aflatoxicoses.

Inorganic nitrogen has been identified as the major growth-limiting nutritional factor affecting Gracilaria gracilis populations in South Africa. Although the physiological mechanisms implemented by G. gracilis for adaption to low nitrogen environments have been investigated, little is known about the molecular mechanisms of these adaptions. This study provides the first investigation of G. gracilis proteome changes in response to nitrogen limitation and subsequent recovery. A differential proteomics approach employing two-dimensional gel electrophoresis and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry was used to investigate G. gracilis proteome changes in response to nitrogen limitation and recovery. The putative identity of 22 proteins that changed significantly (P

Toxigenic Aspergillus species produce mycotoxins that are carcinogenic, hepatotoxic and teratogenic immunosuppressing agents in both human and animals. Kenya frequently experiences outbreaks of aflatoxicosis with the worst occurring in 2010, which resulted in 215 deaths. We examined the possible reasons for these frequent aflatoxicosis outbreaks in Kenya by studying Aspergillus flavus diversity, phenotypes and mycotoxin profiles across various agricultural regions. Using diagonal transect random sampling, maize kernels were collected from Makueni, Homa Bay, Nandi, and Kisumu counties. Out of 37 isolates, nitrate non-utilizing auxotrophs complementation test revealed 20 vegetative compatibility groups. We designated these groups by the prefix “KVCG”, where “K” represented Kenya and consequently assigned numbers 1–20 based on our findings. KVCG14 and KVCG15 had highest distribution frequency (n = 13; 10.8 %). The distribution of the L-, S- and S-/L-morphotypes across the regions were 57 % (n = 21); 7 % (n = 3) and 36 % (n = 13), respectively. Furthermore, a unique isolate (KSM015) was identified that had characteristics of S-morphotype, but produced both aflatoxins B and G. Coconut agar medium (CAM) assay, TLC and HPLC analyses confirmed the presence or absence of aflatoxins in selected toxigenic and atoxigenic isolates. Diversity index (H′) analyses ranged from 0.11 (Nandi samples) to 0.32 (Kisumu samples). Heterokaryon compatibility ranged from 33 % (for the Makueni samples, n = 3) to 67 % (Nandi samples, n = 6). To our knowledge, this is the first reported findings for A. flavus diversity and distribution in Nandi, Homa Bay and Kisumu counties and may assist current and future researchers in the selection of biocontrol strategies to mitigate aflatoxin contamination as has been researched in Makueni and neighbouring counties.

The authors wish to make the following correction to their paper [...]

Assimilate partitioning is an important and highly integrated process in higher plants which involves not only transport of sugars from source to sink organs but also the regulation of genes triggered by sugars. In this study, we investigated the transcripts level of sucrose transporters (ShSUT1A and ShSUT4) and sucrose phosphate synthase (SPS) mRNA expression in different plant species. RT-PCR analyses showed that ShSUT1A and ShSUT4 accumulated abundantly in sugarcane tissues. In other plant species, ShSUT1A expressed predominantly in maize (Zea mays L.) leaves with low expression in Arabidopsis thaliana and Arabidopsis hallari shoots and roots. ShSUT4 expressed strongly in sugarcane tissues, but, it was not detected in the other plant species. SPS, considered a key enzyme in regulation of sucrose biosynthesis in plants, was highly expressed in sugarcane as compared with maize, but it was not expressed or detected in Arabidopsis. Phylogenetic analysis of 51 plant sucrose transporters fall into two clearly separable groups: Group I and Group II. ShSUT1A shared 67 % identity with ZmSUT1 and was still able to show high SUT expression in maize. The similarity between the cereal SUT1 group and the dicot SUT2 group appears also to extend to gene structure. This high level of conservation of gene structure is intriguing, considering the diverse functions for these proteins. The phylogenetic analysis of SPS revealed that sugarcane and maize assembled into unique subgroup within group III with 95 % identity, while Arabidopsis was in a separate small subgroup, group I with 70 % identity.

Tremendous progress in plant proteomics driven by mass spectrometry (MS) techniques has been made since 2000 when few proteomics reports were published and plant proteomics was in its infancy. These achievements include the refinement of existing techniques and the search for new techniques to address food security, safety, and health issues. It is projected that in 2050, the world's population will reach 9-12 billion people demanding a food production increase of 34-70% (FAO, 2009) from today's food production. Provision of food in a sustainable and environmentally committed manner for such a demand without threatening natural resources, requires that agricultural production increases significantly and that postharvest handling and food manufacturing systems become more efficient requiring lower energy expenditure, a decrease in postharvest losses, less waste generation and food with longer shelf life. There is also a need to look for alternative protein sources to animal based (i.e., plant based) to be able to fulfill the increase in protein demands by 2050. Thus, plant biology has a critical role to play as a science capable of addressing such challenges. In this review, we discuss proteomics especially MS, as a platform, being utilized in plant biology research for the past 10 years having the potential to expedite the process of understanding plant biology for human benefits. The increasing application of proteomics technologies in food security, analysis, and safety is emphasized in this review. But, we are aware that no unique approach/technology is capable to address the global food issues. Proteomics-generated information/resources must be integrated and correlated with other omics-based approaches, information, and conventional programs to ensure sufficient food and resources for human development now and in the future.

Xerophyta humilis is a poikilochlorophyllous monocot resurrection plant used as a model to study vegetative desiccation tolerance. Dehydration imposes tension and ultimate loss of integrity of membranes in desiccation sensitive species. We investigated the predominant molecular species of glycerolipids present in root and leaf tissues, using multiple reaction monitoring mass spectrometry, and then analysed changes therein during dehydration and subsequent rehydration of whole plants. The presence of fatty acids with long carbon chains and with odd numbers of carbons were detected and confirmed by gas chromatography. Dehydration of both leaves and roots resulted in an increase in species containing polyunsaturated fatty acids and a decrease in disaturated species. Upon rehydration, lipid saturation was reversed, with this being initiated immediately upon watering in roots but only 12-24 hr later in leaves. Relative levels of species with short-chained odd-numbered saturated fatty acids decreased during dehydration and increased during rehydration, whereas the reverse trend was observed for long-chained fatty acids. X. humilis has a unique lipid composition, this report being one of the few to demonstrate the presence of odd-numbered fatty acids in plant phosphoglycerolipids.

Rhizobia of the genus Burkholderia have large-scale distribution ranges and are usually associated with South African papilionoid and South American mimosoid legumes, yet little is known about their genetic structuring at either local or global geographic scales. To understand variation at different spatial scales, from individual legumes in the fynbos (South Africa) to a global context, we analyzed chromosomal (16S rRNA, recA ) and symbiosis ( nifH , nodA , nodC ) gene sequences. We showed that the global diversity of nodulation genes is generally grouped according to the South African papilionoid or South American mimosoid subfamilies, whereas chromosomal sequence data were unrelated to biogeography. While nodulation genes are structured on a continental scale, a geographic or host-specific distribution pattern was not detected in the fynbos region. In host range experiments, symbiotic promiscuity of Burkholderia tuberum STM678 T and B . phymatum STM815 T was discovered in selected fynbos species. Finally, a greenhouse experiment was undertaken to assess the ability of mimosoid ( Mimosa pudica ) and papilionoid ( Dipogon lignosus , Indigofera filifolia , Macroptilium atropurpureum , and Podalyria calyptrata ) species to nodulate in South African (fynbos) and Malawian (savanna) soils. While the Burkholderia -philous fynbos legumes ( D . lignosus , I . filifolia , and P . calyptrata ) nodulated only in their native soils, the invasive neotropical species M . pudica did not develop nodules in the African soils. The fynbos soil, notably rich in Burkholderia , seems to retain nodulation genes compatible with the local papilionoid legume flora but is incapable of nodulating mimosoid legumes that have their center of diversity in South America. IMPORTANCE This study is the most comprehensive phylogenetic assessment of root-nodulating Burkholderia and investigated biogeographic and host-related patterns of the legume-rhizobial symbiosis in the South African fynbos biome, as well as at global scales, including native species from the South American Caatinga and Cerrado biomes. While a global investigation of the rhizobial diversity revealed distinct nodulation and nitrogen fixation genes among South African and South American legumes, regionally distributed species in the Cape region were unrelated to geographic and host factors.

To develop crop plants with enhanced tolerance of drought stress, a basic understanding of physiological, biochemical, and genetic networks is essential. Four bread wheat genotypes and one wheat line were evaluated for molecular indicators of drought tolerance using RAPD-PCR and protein profiling. The RAPD markers were used to determine the genetic differences between the five wheat genotypes and to determine the molecular markers associated with tolerance to drought. The present study found that RAPD analysis is a valuable diagnostic tool when different sets of RAPD primers were used to study the polymorphism at the molecular level. A total of 72 alleles were amplified with six random primers out of which 61% were monomorphic and 38% were polymorphic. Primer B8 amplified a 600 bp band in Sham-6 which is assumed to be a drought-tolerant genotype, while primer A-8 amplified a 550 bp band in genotypes Giza-168 and Sham-6. Genetically, the most similar genotypes were Sham-6 and Line-7 (93%) followed by Gemaza-9 and Giza-168 (92%) while the most dissimilar genotype was Sakha-93 (86%). Protein profiling revealed differences between the genotypes with a protein band presents at 130 KDa in the Sham-6, Gemaza-9, and Sakha-93 genotypes and absent in Line-7 and Giza-168. Proline content was highest in the drought-tolerant genotypes, Sham-6 and Sakha-93. Sucrose content in shoots was increased in tolerant plants (Sakha-93 and Sham-6), while there was a reduction in sucrose in the shoot tissues of the seedling stage of Gemaza-9, Line-7, and Giza-168. Overall, the accumulation of reducing sugars was lowest in all plants compared with sucrose content.

Xerophyta viscosa (family Velloziaceae) is a monocotyledonous poikilochlorophyllous desiccation tolerant plant capable of surviving drying its leaf tissue to 5% relative water content (RWC) for prolonged periods and resuming full physiological activity upon rehydration. X. viscosa and other resurrection plants are excellent model systems for the study of desiccation tolerance mechanisms. In this work, the X. viscosa nuclear protein profile was investigated in response to dehydration stress using 2D gel electrophoresis, protein map analysis and mass spectrometry identification. From an average of 438 protein spots detected on the gels, 18 spots were significantly shown to increase in abundance upon dehydration at 35% RWC. Analysis of the 18 dehydration-induced nuclear protein spots resulted in the identification of proteins associated with gene transcription and regulation, cell signalling, molecular chaperone and proteolysis type activities, protein translation, energy metabolism, and novel proteins. This study revealed that X. viscosa nucleus responded to dehydration stress and that desiccation tolerance was controlled by multiple genes within the plant nucleus. This study indicated that adjusting gene regulation and expression of appropriate stress response proteins in the nucleus was sufficient to protect the cellular structures during dehydration and in the dried state.

Higher plants contain biologically active molecules that are recognized by anti-human atrial natriuretic polypeptide rabbit serum (anti-ANP). These molecules are termed immunoreactant plant natriuretic peptides (irPNPs) and have previously been shown to be associated with conductive tissue and to affect ion fluxes, protoplast volume regulation and stomatal guard cell responses. Herein an irPNP from the brassicaceus weed Erucastrum strigosum is identified and it is demonstrated that the relative amounts of irPNP expressed as a percentage of total water : methanol (50 : 50) extracted proteins are increased when plants are exposed to 300 mM NaCl. Since 100 and 200 mM NaCl reduce dry and fresh mass as well as increase total tissue NaCl load, it is hypothesized that irPNP up-regulation is a late and possibly adaptive response. IrPNP is also significantly up-regulated in Arabidopsis thaliana suspension culture cells in response to 150 mM NaCl and even more so in response to iso-osmolar amounts of sorbitol. Finally, a recombinant A. thaliana irPNP (AtPNP-A) promotes net water-uptake into the protoplast and thus volume increases. This response is dependent on de novo protein synthesis and may suggest a complex and possibly regulatory function for irPNP-like molecules in plant homeostasis.

The sucrose operon of Clostridium beijerinckii NCIMB 8052 comprises four genes, which encode a sucrose-specific enzyme IIBC(Scr) protein of the phosphotransferase system (ScrA), a transcriptional repressor (ScrR), a sucrose hydrolase (ScrB) and an ATP-dependent fructokinase (ScrK). The scrARBK operon was cloned in Escherichia coli in three stages. Initial isolation was achieved by screening a C. beijerinckii genomic library in E. coli for clones able to utilize sucrose, while the remainder of the operon was isolated by inverse PCR and by plasmid rescue of flanking regions from a scrB mutant constructed by targeted gene disruption. Substrate specificity assays confirmed that the sucrose hydrolase was a beta-fructofuranosidase, able to hydrolyse sucrose and raffinose but not inulin or levans, and that the scrK gene encoded an ATP/Mg2+-dependent fructokinase. Both enzyme activities were induced by sucrose in C. beijerinckii. Disruption of the scr operon of C. beijerinckii by targeted plasmid integration into either the scrR or the scrB gene resulted in strains unable to utilize sucrose, indicating that this was the only inducible sucrose catabolic pathway in this organism. RNA analysis confirmed that the genes of the scr operon were co-transcribed on a 5 kb mRNA transcript and that transcription was induced by sucrose, but not by glucose, fructose, maltose or xylose. Primer extension experiments identified the transcriptional start site as lying 44 bp upstream of the scrA ATG start codon, immediately adjacent to the imperfect pelindrome sequence proposed to be a repressor binding site. Disruption of the scrR gene resulted in constitutive transcription of the upstream scrA gene, suggesting that ScrR encodes a transcriptional repressor which acts at the scrA operator sequence. The scrR gene is therefore itself negatively autoregulated as part of the polycistronic scrARBK mRNA

Abiotic stresses resulting from water deficit, high salinity or periods of drought adversely affect plant growth and development and represent major selective forces during plant evolution. The raffinose family oligosaccharides (RFOs) are synthesised from sucrose by the subsequent addition of activated galactinol moieties donated by galactinol. RFOs are characterised as compatible solutes involved in stress tolerance defence mechanisms, although evidence also suggests that they act as antioxidants, are part of carbon partitioning strategies and may serve as signals in response to stress. The key enzyme and regulatory point in RFO biosynthesis is galactinol synthase (GolS), and an increase of GolS in expression and activity is often associated with abiotic stress. It has also been shown that different GolS isoforms are expressed in response to different types of abiotic stress, suggesting that the timing and accumulation of RFOs are controlled for each abiotic stress. However, the accumulation of RFOs in response to stress is not universal and other functional roles have been suggested for RFOs, such as being part of a carbon storage mechanism. Transgenic Arabidopsis plants with increased galactinol and raffinose concentrations had better ROS scavenging capacity, while many sugars have been shown in vitro to have antioxidant activity, suggesting that RFOs may also act as antioxidants. The RFO pathway also interacts with other carbohydrate pathways, such as that of O-methyl inositol (OMI), which shows that the functional relevance of RFOs must not be seen in isolation to overall carbon re-allocation during stress responses.

Tremendous progress in plant proteomics driven by mass spectrometry (MS) techniques has been made since 2000 when few proteomics reports were published and plant proteomics was in its infancy. These achievements include the refinement of existing techniques and the search for new techniques to address food security, safety, and health issues. It is projected that in 2050, the world's population will reach 9-12 billion people demanding a food production increase of 34-70% (FAO, 2009) from today's food production. Provision of food in a sustainable and environmentally committed manner for such a demand without threatening natural resources, requires that agricultural production increases significantly and that postharvest handling and food manufacturing systems become more efficient requiring lower energy expenditure, a decrease in postharvest losses, less waste generation and food with longer shelf life. There is also a need to look for alternative protein sources to animal based (i.e., plant based) to be able to fulfill the increase in protein demands by 2050. Thus, plant biology has a critical role to play as a science capable of addressing such challenges. In this review, we discuss proteomics especially MS, as a platform, being utilized in plant biology research for the past 10 years having the potential to expedite the process of understanding plant biology for human benefits. The increasing application of proteomics technologies in food security, analysis, and safety is emphasized in this review. But, we are aware that no unique approach/technology is capable to address the global food issues. Proteomics-generated information/resources must be integrated and correlated with other omics-based approaches, information, and conventional programs to ensure sufficient food and resources for human development now and in the future.

The International Plant Proteomics Organization (INPPO) is a non-profit-organization consisting of people who are involved or interested in plant proteomics. INPPO is constantly growing in volume and activity, which is mostly due to the realization among plant proteomics researchers worldwide for the need of such a global platform. Their active participation resulted in the rapid growth within the first year of INPPO's official launch in 2011 via its website (www.inppo.com) and publication of the 'Viewpoint paper' in a special issue of PROTEOMICS (May 2011). Here, we will be highlighting the progress achieved in the year 2011 and the future targets for the year 2012 and onwards. INPPO has achieved a successful administrative structure, the Core Committee (CC; composed of President, Vice-President, and General Secretaries), Executive Council (EC), and General Body (GB) to achieve INPPO objectives. Various committees and subcommittees are in the process of being functionalized via discussion amongst scientists around the globe. INPPO's primary aim to popularize the plant proteomics research in biological sciences has also been recognized by PROTEOMICS where a section dedicated to plant proteomics has been introduced starting January 2012, following the very first issue of this journal devoted to plant proteomics in May 2011. To disseminate organizational activities to the scientific community, INPPO has launched a biannual (in January and July) newsletter entitled 'INPPO Express: News & Views' with the first issue published in January 2012. INPPO is also planning to have several activities in 2012, including programs within the Education Outreach committee in different countries, and the development of research ideas and proposals with priority on crop and horticultural plants, while keeping tight interactions with proteomics programs on model plants such as Arabidopsis thaliana, rice, and Medicago truncatula. Altogether, the INPPO progress and upcoming activities are because of immense support, dedication, and hard work of all members of the INPPO community, and also due to the wide encouragement and support from the communities (scientific and non-scientific).

Xerophyta viscosa Baker (family Velloziaceae) is a desiccation tolerant plant which survives extremes of dehydration down to 5% relative water content (RWC) and resumes full physiological activity within 80h of rehydration. The nuclear proteome of Xerophyta viscosa and its response to dehydration at 35% RWC as compared to fully hydrated plants was analysed using iTRAQ together with 2DLC and ESI-MS/MS. RWC at 35% is unique for desiccation tolerant species as it represents a distinct phase of the dehydration process where induction of late protection mechanisms are initiated. We reproducibly identified 122 proteins with confidence≥95% (ρ0.05). In response to dehydration, 65% of the identified proteins had the same protein abundance as the hydrated, 22% were shown to be more abundant while 9.8% were less abundant. Classification of the nuclear proteins according to GO annotation showed that most proteins were part of cellular processes (77.43%) and had binding activity (85.47%) respectively. Ontological classification according to Interpro and Pfam databases categorized most nuclear proteins as part of gene regulation (21%) while the functions of the mapped proteins using MapMan showed involvement in protein synthesis (22%), degradation (9%), DNA structure (8%) and regulation (8%).

In this chapter, we review the current understanding of desiccation tolerance in the vegetative tissues of resurrection plants. We present an overview of the stresses associated with desiccation and the physiological and biochemical protection reported to result in amelioration of these stresses and discuss the contribution of the genomics era in furthering our understanding of these protection systems in the attainment of desiccation tolerance. We discuss the advances made in proteomics and give a brief overview of recent contributions in the field of metabolomics that have contributed to the understanding of desiccation tolerance.

Bacteroides fragilis is an opportunistic pathogen which can cause life threatening infections in humans and animals. The ability to adhere to components of the extracellular matrix, including collagen, is related to bacterial host colonisation. Collagen Far Western analysis of the B. fragilis outer membrane protein (OMP) fraction revealed the presence two collagen adhesin bands of ∼ 31 and ∼ 34 kDa. The collagen adhesins in the OMP fraction were separated and isolated by two-dimensional SDS-PAGE and also purified by collagen affinity chromatography. The collagen binding proteins isolated by both these independent methods were subjected to tandem mass spectroscopy for peptide identification and matched to a single hypothetical protein encoded by B. fragilis NCTC 9343 (BF0586), conserved in YCH46 (BF0662) and 638R (BF0633) and which is designated in this study as cbp1 (collagen binding protein). Functionality of the protein was confirmed by targeted insertional mutagenesis of the cbp1 gene in B. fragilis GSH18 which resulted in the specific loss of both the ∼ 31 kDa and the ∼ 34 kDa adhesin bands. Purified his-tagged Cbp1, expressed in a B. fragilis wild-type and a glycosylation deficient mutant, confirmed that the cbp1 gene encoded the observed collagen adhesin, and showed that the 34 kDa band represents a glycosylated version of the ∼ 31 kDa protein. Glycosylation did not appear to be required for binding collagen. This study is the first to report the presence of collagen type I adhesin proteins in B. fragilis and to functionally identify a gene encoding a collagen binding protein.