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Despite over 60 years of research on antiviral drugs, very few are FDA approved to treat acute viral infections. Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV), an arthropod borne virus that causes hemorrhagic fever in severe cases, currently lacks effective treatments. Existing as obligate intracellular parasites, viruses have evolved to manipulate host cell signaling pathways to meet their replication needs. Specifically, translation modulation is often necessary for viruses to establish infection in their host. Here we demonstrated phosphorylation of p70 S6 kinase, S6 ribosomal protein, and eIF4G following RVFV infection in vitro through western blot analysis and in a mouse model of infection through reverse phase protein microarrays (RPPA). Inhibition of p70 S6 kinase through rapamycin treatment reduced viral titers in vitro and increased survival and mitigated clinical disease in RVFV challenged mice. Additionally, the phosphorylation of p70 S6 kinase was decreased following rapamycin treatment in vivo. Collectively these data demonstrate modulating p70 S6 kinase can be an effective antiviral strategy.

HIV-infected subjects are at high risk of developing atherosclerosis, in part due to virus-induced impairment of HDL metabolism. Here, using as a model of HIV infection the NOD.Cg-Prkdc(scid)IL2rg(tm1Wjl)/SzJ (NSG) mice humanized by human stem cell transplantation, we demonstrate that LXR agonist TO901317 potently reduces viral replication and prevents HIV-induced reduction of plasma HDL. These results establish that humanized mice can be used to investigate the mechanisms of HIV-induced impairment of HDL formation, a major feature of dyslipidemia associated with HIV-1 infection, and show potential benefits of developing LXR agonists for treatment of HIV-associated cardio-vascular disease.

We have developed an experimental recombinant vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV) vectored plague vaccine expressing a secreted form of Yersinia pestis low calcium response protein V (LcrV) from the first position of the VSV genome. This vector, given intramuscularly in a single dose, induced high-level antibody titers to LcrV and gave 90–100% protection against pneumonic plague challenge in mice. This single-dose protection was significantly better than that generated by VSV expressing the non-secreted LcrV protein. Increased protection correlated with increased anti-LcrV antibody and a bias toward IgG2a and away from IgG1 isotypes. We also found that the depletion of CD4+ cells, but not CD8+ cells, at the time of challenge resulted in reduced vaccine protection, indicating a role for cellular immunity in protection.

There are currently no FDA-approved therapeutics available to treat Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV) infection. In an effort to repurpose drugs for RVFV treatment, a library of FDA-approved drugs was screened to determine their ability to inhibit RVFV. Several drugs from varying compound classes, including inhibitors of growth factor receptors, microtubule assembly/disassembly, and DNA synthesis, were found to reduce RVFV replication. The hepatocellular and renal cell carcinoma drug, sorafenib, was the most effective inhibitor, being non-toxic and demonstrating inhibition of RVFV in a cell-type and virus strain independent manner. Mechanism of action studies indicated that sorafenib targets at least two stages in the virus infectious cycle, RNA synthesis and viral egress. Computational modeling studies also support this conclusion. siRNA knockdown of Raf proteins indicated that non-classical targets of sorafenib are likely important for the replication of RVFV.

Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus (VEEV) is classified as a Category B Select Agent and potential bioterror weapon for its severe disease course in humans and equines and its potential for aerosol transmission. There are no current FDA licensed vaccines or specific therapies against VEEV, making identification of potential therapeutic targets a priority. With this aim, our research focuses on the interactions of VEEV with host microRNA (miRNA) machinery. miRNAs are small non-coding RNAs that act as master regulators of gene expression by downregulating or degrading messenger RNA, thus suppressing production of the resultant proteins. Recent publications implicate miRNA interactions in the pathogenesis of various viral diseases. To test the importance of miRNA processing for VEEV replication, cells deficient in Ago2, an important component of the RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC), and cells treated with known Ago2 inhibitors, notably acriflavine (ACF), were utilized. Both conditions caused decreased viral replication and capsid expression. ACF treatment promoted increased survival of neuronal cells over a non-treated, infected control and reduced viral titers of fully virulent VEEV as well as Eastern and Western Equine Encephalitis Viruses and West Nile Virus, but not Vesicular Stomatitis Virus. ACF treatment of VEEV TC-83 infected mice resulted in increased in vivo survival, but did not affect survival or viral loads when mice were challenged with fully virulent VEEV TrD. These results suggest that inhibition of Ago2 results in decreased replication of encephalitic alphaviruses in vitro and this pathway may be an avenue to explore for future therapeutic development.

The implementation of new antiretroviral therapies targeting transcription of early viral proteins in postintegrated HIV-1 can aid in overcoming current therapy limitations. Using high-throughput screening assays, we have previously described a novel Tat-dependent HIV-1 transcriptional inhibitor named 6-bromoindirubin-3′-oxime (6BIO). The screening of 6BIO derivatives yielded unique compounds that show potent inhibition of HIV-1 transcription. We have identified a second-generation derivative called 18BIOder as an inhibitor of HIV-1 Tat-dependent transcription in TZM-bl cells and a potent inhibitor of GSK-3β kinase in vitro . Structurally, 18BIOder is half the molecular weight and structure of its parental compound, 6BIO. More importantly, we also have found a different GSK-3β complex present only in HIV-1-infected cells. 18BIOder preferentially inhibits this novel kinase complex from infected cells at nanomolar concentrations. Finally, we observed that neuronal cultures treated with Tat protein are protected from Tat-mediated cytotoxicity when treated with 18BIOder. Overall, our data suggest that HIV-1 Tat-dependent transcription is sensitive to small-molecule inhibition of GSK-3β.

Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV) is an arbovirus that is classified as a select agent, an emerging infectious virus, and an agricultural pathogen. Understanding RVFV-host interactions is imperative to the design of novel therapeutics. Here, we report that an infection by the MP-12 strain of RVFV induces phosphorylation of the p65 component of the NFκB cascade. We demonstrate that phosphorylation of p65 (serine 536) involves phosphorylation of IκBα and occurs through the classical NFκB cascade. A unique, low molecular weight complex of the IKK-β subunit can be observed in MP-12-infected cells, which we have labeled IKK-β2. The IKK-β2 complex retains kinase activity and phosphorylates an IκBα substrate. Inhibition of the IKK complex using inhibitors impairs viral replication, thus alluding to the requirement of an active IKK complex to the viral life cycle. Curcumin strongly down-regulates levels of extracellular infectious virus. Our data demonstrated that curcumin binds to and inhibits kinase activity of the IKK-β2 complex in infected cells. Curcumin partially exerts its inhibitory influence on RVFV replication by interfering with IKK-β2-mediated phosphorylation of the viral protein NSs and by altering the cell cycle of treated cells. Curcumin also demonstrated efficacy against ZH501, the fully virulent version of RVFV. Curcumin treatment down-regulated viral replication in the liver of infected animals. Our data point to the possibility that RVFV infection may result in the generation of novel versions of host components (such as IKK-β2) that, by virtue of altered protein interaction and function, qualify as unique therapeutic targets.

Alphaviruses, including Venezuelan Equine Encephalitis Virus (VEEV), cause disease in both equine and humans that exhibit overt encephalitis in a significant percentage of cases. Features of the host immune response and tissue-specific responses may contribute to fatal outcomes as well as the development of encephalitis. It has previously been shown that VEEV infection of mice induces transcription of pro-inflammatory cytokines genes (e.g., IFN-γ, IL-6, IL-12, iNOS and TNF-α) within 6 h. GSK-3β is a host protein that is known to modulate pro-inflammatory gene expression and has been a therapeutic target in neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer's. Hence inhibition of GSK-3β in the context of encephalitic viral infections has been useful in a neuroprotective capacity. Small molecule GSK-3β inhibitors and GSK-3β siRNA experiments indicated that GSK-3β was important for VEEV replication. Thirty-eight second generation BIO derivatives were tested and BIOder was found to be the most potent inhibitor, with an IC(50) of ∼0.5 µM and a CC(50) of >100 µM. BIOder was a more potent inhibitor of GSK-3β than BIO, as demonstrated through in vitro kinase assays from uninfected and infected cells. Size exclusion chromatography experiments demonstrated that GSK-3β is found in three distinct complexes in VEEV infected cells, whereas GSK-3β is only present in one complex in uninfected cells. Cells treated with BIOder demonstrated an increase in the anti-apoptotic gene, survivin, and a decrease in the pro-apoptotic gene, BID, suggesting that modulation of pro- and anti-apoptotic genes contributes to the protective effect of BIOder treatment. Finally, BIOder partially protected mice from VEEV induced mortality. Our studies demonstrate the utility of GSK-3β inhibitors for modulating VEEV infection.

The aerosol form of the bacterium Yersinia pestis causes pneumonic plague, a rapidly fatal disease that is a biothreat if deliberately released. At present, no plague vaccines are available for use in the United States, but subunit vaccines based on the Y. pestis V antigen and F1 capsular protein show promise when administered with adjuvants. In the context that adenovirus (Ad) gene transfer vectors have a strong adjuvant potential related to the ability to directly infect dendritic cells, we hypothesized that modification of the Ad5 capsid to display either the Y. pestis V antigen or the F1 capsular antigen on the virion surface would elicit high V antigen- or F1-specific antibody titers, permit boosting with the same Ad serotype, and provide better protection against a lethal Y. pestis challenge than immunization with equivalent amounts of V or F1 recombinant protein plus conventional adjuvant. We constructed AdYFP-pIX/V and AdLacZ-pIX/F1, E1(-), E3(-) serotype 5 Ad gene transfer vectors containing a fusion of the sequence for either the Y. pestis V antigen or the F1 capsular antigen to the carboxy-terminal sequence of pIX, a capsid protein that can accommodate the entire V antigen (37 kDa) or F1 protein (15 kDa) without disturbing Ad function. Immunization with AdYFP-pIX/V followed by a single repeat administration of the same vector at the same dose resulted in significantly better protection of immunized animals compared with immunization with a molar equivalent amount of purified recombinant V antigen plus Alhydrogel adjuvant. Similarly, immunization with AdLacZ-pIX/F1 in a prime-boost regimen resulted in significantly enhanced protection of immunized animals compared with immunization with a molar-equivalent amount of purified recombinant F1 protein plus adjuvant. These observations demonstrate that Ad vaccine vectors containing pathogen-specific antigens fused to the pIX capsid protein have strong adjuvant properties and stimulate more robust protective immune responses than equivalent recombinant protein-based subunit vaccines administered with conventional adjuvant, suggesting that F1-and/or V-modified capsid Ad-based recombinant vaccines should be considered for development as anti-plague vaccines.

Pneumonic plague, caused by inhalation of Yersinia pestis , represents a major bioterrorism threat for which no vaccine is available. Based on the knowledge that genetic delivery of monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) with adenovirus (Ad) gene transfer vectors results in rapid, high-level antibody expression, we evaluated the hypothesis that Ad-mediated delivery of a neutralizing antibody directed against the Y. pestis V antigen would protect mice against a Y. pestis challenge. MAbs specific for the Y. pestis V antigen were generated, and the most effective in protecting mice against a lethal intranasal Y. pestis challenge was chosen for further study. The coding sequences for the heavy and light chains were isolated from the corresponding hybridoma and inserted into a replication-defective serotype 5 human Ad gene transfer vector (AdαV). Western analysis of AdαV-infected cell supernatants demonstrated completely assembled antibodies reactive with V antigen. Following AdαV administration to mice, high levels of anti-V antigen antibody titers were detectable as early as 1 day postadministration, peaked by day 3, and remained detectable through a 12-week time course. When animals that received AdαV were challenged with Y. pestis at day 4 post-AdαV administration, 80% of the animals were protected, while 0% of control animals survived ( P < 0.01). Ad-mediated delivery of a V antigen-neutralizing antibody is an effective therapy against plague in experimental animals and could be developed as a rapidly acting antiplague therapeutic.

Basic technologies have been successfully developed within this project: rapid collection of aerosols and a rapid ultra-sensitive immunoassay technique. Water-soluble, humidity-resistant polyacrylamide nano-filters were shown to (1) capture aerosol particles as small as 20 nm, (2) work in humid air and (3) completely liberate their captured particles in an aqueous solution compatible with the immunoassay technique. The immunoassay technology developed within this project combines electrophoretic capture with magnetic bead detection. It allows detection of as few as 150-600 analyte molecules or viruses in only three minutes, something no other known method can duplicate. The technology can be used in a variety of applications where speed of analysis and/or extremely low detection limits are of great importance: in rapid analysis of donor blood for hepatitis, HIV and other blood-borne infections in emergency blood transfusions, in trace analysis of pollutants, or in search of biomarkers in biological fluids. Combined in a single device, the water-soluble filter and ultra-sensitive immunoassay technique may solve the problem of early “warning type” detection of aerosolized pathogens. These two technologies are protected with five patent applications and are ready for commercialization.

We have developed recombinant vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV) vectors expressing the Yersinia pestis lcrV gene. These vectors, given intranasally to mice, induced high antibody titers to the LcrV protein and protected against intranasal (pulmonary) challenge with Y. pestis. High-level protection was dependent on using an optimized VSV vector that expressed high levels of the LcrV protein from an lcrV gene placed in the first position in the VSV genome, followed by a single boost. This VSV-based vaccine vector system has potential as a plague vaccine protecting against virulent strains lacking the F1 protein.

Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus (VEEV) belongs to the genus Alphavirus, family Togaviridae. VEEV infection is characterized by extensive inflammation and studies from other laboratories implicated an involvement of the NF-κB cascade in the in vivo pathology. Initial studies indicated that at early time points of VEEV infection, the NF-κB complex was activated in cells infected with the TC-83 strain of VEEV. One upstream kinase that contributes to the phosphorylation of p65 is the IKKβ component of the IKK complex. Our previous studies with Rift valley fever virus, which exhibited early activation of the NF-κB cascade in infected cells, had indicated that the IKKβ component underwent macromolecular reorganization to form a novel low molecular weight form unique to infected cells. This prompted us to investigate if the IKK complex undergoes a comparable macromolecular reorganization in VEEV infection. Size-fractionated VEEV infected cell extracts indicated a macromolecular reorganization of IKKβ in VEEV infected cells that resulted in formation of lower molecular weight complexes. Well-documented inhibitors of IKKβ function, BAY-11-7082, BAY-11-7085 and IKK2 compound IV, were employed to determine whether IKKβ function was required for the production of infectious progeny virus. A decrease in infectious viral particles and viral RNA copies was observed with inhibitor treatment in the attenuated and virulent strains of VEEV infection. In order to further validate the requirement of IKKβ for VEEV replication, we over-expressed IKKβ in cells and observed an increase in viral titers. In contrast, studies carried out using IKKβ(-/-) cells demonstrated a decrease in VEEV replication. In vivo studies demonstrated that inhibitor treatment of TC-83 infected mice increased their survival. Finally, proteomics studies have revealed that IKKβ may interact with the viral protein nsP3. In conclusion, our studies have revealed that the host IKKβ protein may be critically involved in VEEV replication.