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Room-temperature (RT) formability is a key factor to broaden the applications of rolled Mg alloy sheets in the industry. However, rolled Mg alloy sheets generally form strong basal texture, where the (0001) poles align parallel to the normal direction (ND). This hinders the activation of (0001) [112¯0] basal slip, limiting the RT formability. Therefore, texture weakening, i.e., the inclination of the (0001) poles from the ND, plays an important role to improve the RT formability. Recrystallization is crucial to control the textural development in Mg, and currently, the texture weakening is commonly achieved using static recrystallization (SRX). However, the type of slipping and twinning, which are activated during rolling, affect the textural features after SRX. It is also demonstrated that shear bands and preferential grain growth are important factors to tailor the texture during SRX. Indeed, dynamic recrystallization (DRX) easily occurs during rolling in Mg, which also affects the final rolling texture, while the effect of DRX on the textural formation is not extensively studied for the development of RT-formable Mg alloy sheets. Therefore, the effect of these factors on the textural development in rolled Mg is reviewed in this manuscript. Additionally, the ideal microstructure and texture for RT-formable Mg alloy sheets are still controversial. The RT-formability includes stretch forming (biaxial tension), bending (plane strain tension), and deep-drawing. In particular, the stretch forming is commonly used to evaluate the RT-formability of rolled Mg. Although the stretch formability has been improved by recent studies, the further improvement is necessary owing to the relatively low formability of rolled Mg compared with that of rolled Fe and Al. Based on the relationship between the microstructure/texture and stretch formability provided in the literature, the design guidance for high stretch formability is proposed in this review.

The origin of unique parallel alignment of (0001) poles to transverse direction (TD) was investigated using Mg-3Al-0.4Mn (mass%) alloy sheets rolled with different process conditions. When rolling was performed with intermediate reheating, the alloy showed a sluggish static recrystallization (SRX) behavior during post-annealing, facilitating the nucleation and growth of statically recrystallized grains from extension twins. This resulted in the apparent texture component with the parallel alignment of the (0001) poles to the TD, and the sheet exhibited good ductility for both the rolling direction (RD) and TD. In contrast, continuous rolling without intermediate reheating led to the formation of severely deformed regions near double twins. SRX was promoted at such regions, forming a typical basal textural feature with weak RD-split of the (0001) poles. Although extension twins were formed after the continuous rolling, SRX was facilitated at the severely deformed regions with double twins, and the formation of the unique alignment of the (0001) poles to the TD was suppressed. The RD-split texture led to the large elongation to failure along the RD, while it along the TD decreased owing to the narrow distribution of the (0001) poles toward the TD, resulting in the in-plane anisotropy in ductility.

Microstructure evolution and mechanical properties of the as-drawn dilute Mg-0.8Al-0.1Ca-0.6Mn (wt. %) alloy wires during annealing and peak-aging treatment were investigated in this paper. The results show that the high density of nano-sized Al–Mn precipitates strongly hindered grain boundary migration to restrict grain growth during annealing under 300 °C and 400 °C, while grain growth was obvious and the uniformity of recrystallization grain size increased due to partial dissolution of Al–Mn precipitates at 500 °C. In addition, there was a growth preference in grains with (0001) orientation, which was closely associated with the texture changes. The alloy annealed at 500 °C for 10min exhibits remarkable age-hardening response and both the tensile yield strength and elongation to failure were improved simultaneously after peak-aging treatment, which was mainly attributed to the monolayered Guinier-Preston (G.P.) zones and planar Al2Ca precipitates.

Strength and ductility synergy in an Mg-3mass%Al-Mn (AM30) alloy sheet was successfully improved via twin-roll casting and annealing at low-temperature. An AM30 alloy sheet produced by twin-roll casting, homogenization, hot-rolling, and subsequent annealing at 170 °C for 64 h exhibits a good 0.2% proof stress of 170 MPa and a large elongation to failure of 33.1% along the rolling direction. The sheet also shows in-plane isotropic tensile properties, and the 0.2% proof stress and elongation to failure along the transverse direction are 176 MPa and 35.5%, respectively. Though the sheet produced by direct-chill casting also shows moderate strengths if the annealing condition is same, the direct-chill casting leads to the deteriorated elongation to failure of 23.9% and 30.0% for the rolling and transverse directions, respectively. As well as such excellent tensile properties, a high room-temperature stretch formability with an Index Erichsen value of 8.3 mm could be obtained in the twin-roll cast sheet annealed at 170 °C for 64 h. The annealing at a higher temperature further improves the stretch formability; however, this results in the decrease of the tensile properties. Microstructure characterization reveals that the excellent combination of strengths, ductility, and stretch formability in the twin-roll cast sheet annealed at the low-temperature annealing is mainly attributed to the uniform recrystallized microstructure, fine grain size, and circular distribution of (0001) poles away from the normal direction of the sheet.

The static recrystallization and associated texture evolution were investigated in an extruded Mg-Zn-Gd alloy with bimodal microstructure based on a quasi-in-situ electron back-scatter diffraction (EBSD) method. The typical rare earth (RE) texture formed during annealing, evolving from the bimodal microstructure with [101¯0] basal fiber texture that consisted of fine recrystallized (RXed) grains and coarse unrecrystallized (unRXed) grains elongated along the extrusion direction. In both RXed and unRXed regions, the RXed nucleation produced randomized orientations without preferred selection and the RXed grains with RE texture orientation had more intensive growth ability than those with basal fiber orientation, thereby leading to the preferred selection of RE texture orientation during grain growth. The relationships between stored strain energy, solute drag, grain growth and texture evolution are discussed in detail. This study provided direct evidence of the RE texture evolution in an extruded Mg-RE alloy, which assists in understanding the formation mechanisms for RE texture during extrusion and better developing wrought Mg alloys with improved formability.

Abstract Background During the chemical and biochemical decomposition of lignocellulosic biomasses, lignin is highly recalcitrant. Genetic transformation of plants to qualitatively and/or quantitatively modify lignin may reduce these recalcitrant properties. Efficient discovery of genes to achieve lignin manipulation is thus required. Results To screen for new genes to reduce lignin recalcitrance, we heterologously expressed 50 enzymatic genes under the control of a cinnamate 4-hydroxylase (C4H) gene promoter, derived from a hybrid aspen, which is preferentially active in tissues with lignified cell walls in Arabidopsis plants. These genes encode enzymes that act on metabolites in shikimate, general phenylpropanoid, flavonoid, or monolignol biosynthetic pathways. Among these genes, 30, 18, and 2 originated from plants, bacteria, and fungi, respectively. In our first screening step, 296 independent transgenic plants (T1 generation) harboring single or multiple transgenes were generated from pools of seven Agrobacterium strains used for conventional floral-dip transformation. Wiesner and Mäule staining patterns in the stems of the resultant plants revealed seven and nine plants with apparent abnormalities in the two respective staining analyses. According to genomic PCR and subsequent direct sequencing, each of these 16 plants possessed a gene encoding either coniferaldehyde dehydrogenase (calB), feruloyl-CoA 6′-hydroxylase (F6H1), hydroxycinnamoyl-CoA hydratase/lyase (couA), or ferulate 5-hydroxylase (F5H), with one transgenic plant carrying both calB and F6H1. The effects of these genes on lignin manipulation were confirmed in individually re-created T1 transgenic Arabidopsis plants. While no difference in lignin content was detected in the transgenic lines compared with the wild type, lignin monomeric composition was changed in the transgenic lines. The observed compositional change in the transgenic plants carrying calB, couA, and F5H led to improved sugar release from cell walls after alkaline pretreatment. Conclusions Simple colorimetric characterization of stem lignin is useful for simultaneous screening of many genes with the potential to reduce lignin recalcitrance. In addition to F5H, the positive control, we identified three enzyme-coding genes that can function as genetic tools for lignin manipulation. Two of these genes (calB and couA) accelerate sugar release from transgenic lignocelluloses.

The age-hardening behavior and mechanical properties of the extruded Mg-2Gd-1.2Y-0.5 Zn (at.%) alloy with Zr or Mn additions were investigated. The results show that Mn added alloy exhibits more remarkable age-hardening response than Zr added alloy, which is attributed to the fact that partitioning of Mn into the β phases, β′ precipitates and long period stacking ordered (LPSO) phases leads to the decrement in (Gd+Y) concentrations in the second phases, facilitating the precipitation during aging treatment. Both peak-aged alloys show bimodal microstructure comprising the fine DRXed grains with nano-sized β phases pinned at DRXed grain boundaries as well as coarse worked grains with strong fiber texture. High strength and good thermal stability were obtained in both peak-aged Mn and Zr added alloys. While the peak-aged Mn added alloy shows higher strength and superior creep resistance due to its denser β′ precipitates, thin LPSO phases and γ′ precipitates and higher area fraction of worked grains with strong fiber texture. The 0.2% tensile proof stress and ultimate tensile strength of peak-aged Mn added alloy reach up to 454 MPa and 508 MPa, respectively, with elongation of 3.2% at room temperature. The minimum creep rate of the peak-aged Mn added alloy at 250 °C / 150 MPa is 2.4 × 10−8 s−1, which is superior than previously reported extruded Mg-Gd based alloys. Keywords: Magnesium alloys, Rare earth (RE), Precipitation, Mechanical properties, Creep resistance

Arabidopsis thaliana transcription factors belonging to the ERFIIId and ERFIIIe subclade (ERFIIId/e) of the APETALA 2/ethylene response factor (AP2/ERF) family enhance primary cell wall (PCW) formation. These transcription factors activate expression of genes encoding PCW-type cellulose synthase (CESA) subunits and other genes for PCW biosynthesis. In this study, we show that fiber-specific expression of ERF035-VP16 and ERF041-VP16, which are VP16-fused proteins of ERFIIId/e members, promote cell wall thickening in a wild-type background with a concomitant increase of alcohol insoluble residues (cell wall content) per fresh weight (FW) and monosaccharides related to the PCW without affecting plant growth. Furthermore, in the ERF041-VP16 lines, the total amount of lignin and the syringyl (S)/guaiacyl (G) ratio decreased, and the enzymatic saccharification yield of glucose from cellulose per fresh weight improved. In these lines, PCW-type CESA genes were upregulated and ferulate 5-hydropxylase1 (F5H1), which is necessary for production of the S unit lignin, was downregulated. In addition, various changes in the expression levels of transcription factors regulating secondary cell wall (SCW) formation were observed. In conclusion, fiber cell-specific ERF041-VP16 improves biomass yield, increases PCW components, and alters lignin composition and deposition and may be suitable for use in future molecular breeding programs of biomass crops.

Mechanical properties are rarely used as quantitative indices for the large-scale mutant screening of plants, even in the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana. The mechanical properties of plant stems generally influence their vibrational characteristics. Here, we developed Python-based software, named AraVib, for the high-throughput analysis of free vibrations of plant stems, focusing specifically on Arabidopsis stem vibrations, and its extended version, named AraVibS, to identify mutants with altered mechanical properties. These programs can be used without knowledge of Python and require only an inexpensive handmade setting stand and an iPhone/iPad with a high-speed shooting function for data acquisition. Using our system, we identified an nst1 nst3 double-mutant lacking secondary cell walls in fiber cells and a wrky12 mutant displaying ectopic formation of secondary cell wall compared with wild type by employing only two growth traits (stem height and fresh weight) in addition to videos of stem vibrations. Furthermore, we calculated the logarithmic decrement, the damping ratio, the natural frequency and the stiffness based on the spring-mass-damper model from the video data using AraVib. The stiffness was estimated to be drastically decreased in nst1 nst3, which agreed with previous tensile test results. However, in wrky12, the stiffness was significantly increased. These results demonstrate the effectiveness of our new system. Because our method can be applied in a high-throughput manner, it can be used to screen for mutants with altered mechanical properties.

Organ size regulation is dependent on the precise spatial and temporal regulation of cell proliferation and cell expansion. A number of transcription factors have been identified that play a key role in the determination of aerial lateral organ size, but their functional relationship to various chromatin modifiers has not been well understood. To understand how leaf size is regulated, we previously isolated the oligocellula1 (oli1) mutant of Arabidopsis thaliana that develops smaller first leaves than the wild type (WT) mainly due to a reduction in the cell number. In this study, we further characterized oli1 leaf phenotypes and identified the OLI1 gene as well as interaction partners of OLI1. Detailed characterizations of leaf development suggested that the cell proliferation rate in oli1 leaf primordia is lower than that in the WT. In addition, oli1 was associated with a slight delay of the progression from the juvenile to adult phases of leaf traits. A classical map-based approach demonstrated that OLI1 is identical to HIGH EXPRESSION OF OSMOTICALLY RESPONSIVE GENES15 (HOS15). HOS15/OLI1 encodes a homolog of human transducin β-like protein1 (TBL1). TBL1 forms a transcriptional repression complex with the histone deacetylase (HDAC) HDAC3 and either nuclear receptor co-repressor (N-CoR) or silencing mediator for retinoic acid and thyroid receptor (SMRT). We found that mutations in HISTONE DEACETYLASE9 (HDA9) and a switching-defective protein 3, adaptor 2, N-CoR, and transcription factor IIIB-domain protein gene, POWERDRESS (PWR), showed a small-leaf phenotype similar to oli1. In addition, hda9 and pwr did not further enhance the oli1 small-leaf phenotype, suggesting that these three genes act in the same pathway. Yeast two-hybrid assays suggested physical interactions, wherein PWR probably bridges HOS15/OLI1 and HDA9. Earlier studies suggested the roles of HOS15, HDA9, and PWR in transcriptional repression. Consistently, transcriptome analyses showed several genes commonly upregulated in the three mutants. From these findings, we propose a possibility that HOS15/OLI1, PWR, and HDA9 form an evolutionary conserved transcription repression complex that plays a positive role in the regulation of final leaf size.

The plastid evolved from a symbiotic cyanobacterial ancestor and is an essential organelle for plant life, but its developmental roles in roots have been largely overlooked. Here, we show that plastid translation is connected to the stem cell patterning in lateral root primordia. The RFC3 gene encodes a plastid-localized protein that is a conserved bacterial ribosomal protein S6 of β/γ proteobacterial origin. The rfc3 mutant developed lateral roots with disrupted stem cell patterning and associated with decreased leaf photosynthetic activity, reduced accumulation of plastid rRNAs in roots, altered root plastid gene expression, and changes in expression of several root stem cell regulators. These results suggest that deficiencies in plastid function affect lateral root stem cells. Treatment with the plastid translation inhibitor spectinomycin phenocopied the defective stem cell patterning in lateral roots and altered plastid gene expression observed in the rfc3 mutant. Additionally, when prps17 defective in a plastid ribosomal protein was treated with low concentrations of spectinomycin, it also phenocopied the lateral root phenotypes of rfc3. The spectinomycin treatment and rfc3 mutation also negatively affected symplasmic connectivity between primary root and lateral root primordia. This study highlights previously unrecognized functions of plastid translation in the stem cell patterning in lateral roots.

Plastid ribosome biogenesis is important for plant growth and development. REGULATOR OF FATTY ACID COMPOSITION3 (RFC3) is a member of the bacterial ribosomal protein S6 family and is important for lateral root development. rfc3-2 dramatically reduces the plastid rRNA level and produces lateral roots that lack stem cells. In this study, we isolated a suppressor of rfc three2 (sprt2) mutant that enabled recovery of most rfc3 mutant phenotypes, including abnormal primary and lateral root development and reduced plastid rRNA level. Northern blotting showed that immature and mature plastid rRNA levels were reduced, with the exception of an early 23S rRNA intermediate, in rfc3-2 mutants. These changes were recovered in rfc3-2 sprt2-1 mutants, but a second defect in the processing of 16S rRNA appeared in this line. The results suggest that rfc3 mutants may be defective in at least two steps of plastid rRNA processing, one of which is specifically affected by the sprt2-1 mutation. sprt2-1 mutants had a mutation in CRM FAMILY MEMBER 3b (CFM3b), which encodes a plastid-localized splicing factor. A bimolecular fluorescence complementation (BiFC) assay suggested that RFC3 and SPRT2/CFM3b interact with each other in plastids. These results suggest that RFC3 suppresses the nonspecific action of SPRT2/CFM3b and improves the accuracy of plastid rRNA processing.

Numerous newly-identified traces of active faults in the Himalayan foothill zone along the HFF around Chandigarh, in Pinjore Dun, along the piedmont zone of the Lower Siwalik hill front and within the Lower Tertiary hill range reveal the pattern of thrust and strike-slip faulting, striking parallel to the principal structural trend (NNW-SSE) of the orogenic belt. The active Chandigarh Fault, Pinjore Garden Fault and Barsar thrust have vertically dislocated, warped and backtilted fluvial and alluvial-fan surfaces made up of Late Pleistocene-Holocene sediments. West- and southwest-facing fault scarplets with heights ranging from 12 to 50 m along these faults suggest continued tectonic movement through Late Pleistocene to recent times. Gentle warping and backtilting of the terraces on the hanging wall sides of the faults indicate fault-bend folding. These active faults are the manifestation of north-dipping imbricated thrust faults branching out from the major fault systems like the Main Boundary Fault (MBF) and Himalayan Frontal Fault (HFF), probably merging down northward into a décollement. The Taksal Fault, striking NNW-SSE, shows prominent right-lateral movement marked by lateral offset of streams and younger Quaternary terraces and occupies a narrow deep linear valley along the fault trace. Right stepping along this fault has resulted in formation of a small pull-apart basin. Fault scarplets facing ENE and WSW are the manifestation of dip-slip movement. This fault is an example of slip-partitioning between the strike-slip and thrust faults, suggesting ongoing oblique convergence of the Indian plate and northward migration of a tectonic sliver. Slip rate along the Taksal Fault has been calculated as 2.8 mm/yr. Preliminary trench investigation at the base of the Chandigarh Fault Scarp has revealed total displacement of 3.5 m along a low angle thrust fault with variable dip of 20° to 46° due northeast, possibly the result of one large magnitude (Mw 7) prehistoric earthquake. Taking into consideration the height of the Pinjore surface (20 to 25 m), tentative age (8.9 ± 1.9 ka), displacement during one event and average angle of fault dip (25°) gives slip rate of about 6.3 ± 2 mm/yr, a rate of horizontal shortening of 5.8 ± 1.8 mm/yr and recurrence of faulting of 555 ± 118 years along the Himalayan Frontal Fault.