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Composite aerogel based on sodium carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC-Na) and chitosan (CS), i.e., CS/CMC-Na, was prepared through a sol-gel method. Then, CS/CMC-Na was used for simulating the adsorption of metal ions (Cr3+, Al3+ and Zr4+) produced by the tanning industry. The adsorption process is consistent with the Langmuir isotherm adsorption model and pseudo-second order kinetics. The maximum fitted adsorption capacities of Cr3+, Al3+, and Zr4+ could reach 250.0, 111.1, and 100.0 mg/g, respectively. After metal ion adsorption, the obtained composite materials (CS/CMC-Na-Cr3+, CS/CMC-Na-Al3+, and CS/CMC-Na-Zr4+) were used as re-tanning agents in the re-tanning process to leather. The re-tanning agent could increase the shrinkage temperature of leather by up to 5 °C. Compared with the traditional method, the method utilized in this study achieved the integration of mental ions-containing wastewater treatment and waste adsorbent/adsorbates recycling. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The textile industry uses sodium chloride and sodium sulphate during the dyeing process to improve the fixation of dyes on fabrics. After wastewater treatment, the reject stream is dried resulting in mixed salts as solid wastes that are not reused. The leather industry also uses a vast quantity of salt for temporary preservation of skins/hides and as swelling-suppressing agent during the pickling (acidification) process. Thus, an attempt was made to utilize the mixed salt obtained from the textile industry to replace sodium chloride in leather processing. It was found that a 40% w/w offer of ATFD salt was able to preserve the skins for 3 months, which was on par with the preservation carried out using a similar quantity of sodium chloride in conventional preservation process. Likewise, for the pickling process, an offer of 10% w/w ATFD salt provided sufficient deswelling action when compared to conventionally used sodium chloride. However, the residual colour of the mixed salts affected the quality of the leather obtained. To overcome this, an electro-oxidation treatment was carried out to obtain decolourized salts. The COD measurements showed that the 1% solution of ATFD-3 salt reduced from 471 ± 25 to 88 ± 16 ppm. A similar trend was also seen in BOD reduction from 80 ± 12 to 18 ± 10 ppm. These results confirmed that the colour removal could be due to the degradation of the organic contaminants present in the ATFD salt. Thus, the treated ATFD salt can be reused for leather processing without affecting leather quality, thus promoting the concept of circular economy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The main purpose of this article was to determine the smoke-generating and thermal properties of selected types of natural leather. Differences in the amount of smoke generated from the type of finish used in the technological processing of leather were observed. Research has shown that the burnt nubuck (367) sample with exposure at the heat flux intensity of 25 kW/m2 without the presence of a pilot burner flame achieved the highest value of the specific optical density Ds,max. Comparable values, 312 and 297, were recorded for grain bovine leather and velour bovine leather, respectively; on the other hand, the lowest value of the tested parameter amounting to 220 was recorded for lacquered bovine leather. Tests executed with the use of thermogravimetric analysis show that except for nubuck leather, the start of thermal decomposition for all types of samples appears to be fairly similar and was found to be within the range of 275–282 °C. The highest value of thermal decomposition onset, i.e., 302 °C, was recorded for nubuck leather. The highest percentile of residues from thermal decomposition, i.e., 9%, was obtained for grain bovine leather. This implies that the least gaseous phase during its thermal decomposition in test conditions was generated by this type of leather. The highest average Ds,max value was obtained for nubuck (367), and decreased as follows: grain bovine leather (312) > velour bovine leather (297) > lacquered bovine leather (220). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Leather has played a very important role in human life for thousands of years. Ensuring the quality of leather and addressing surface defects poses significant challenges. Traditionally, human inspectors are responsible for detecting surface defects in tanneries, but this approach is labor-intensive and susceptible to human error. As a result, there is a growing demand for automated systems to detect the defects. Herein, artificial intelligence (AI) was developed to detect the defects on leather surfaces. Six targeted defect types, denoted as insect bites, scratches, holes, stitch marks, diseased and ruptures, were specifically addressed to enhance the overall quality assessment process. AI-based vision techniques were used to detect flaws on the leather on photographs taken with a high-resolution camera. Deep learning algorithms Mask R-CNN, YOLOv8 and within the framework of Detectron2, RetinaNet R101 3x, Faster R-CNN R101-FPN 3x models were performed and a comparison was made between these algorithms. By using the slicing aided hyper-inference (SAHI) algorithm in coordination with these algorithms, the detection rates of small defects on the images were increased. The highest accuracy rate was achieved when the YOLOv8 algorithm had 75 epoch values for training, and the SAHI algorithm had slice height-width values of 256 × 256 pixels. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To overcome the stringent regulations in the usage of chromium salts and dye-rich effluent let out by the tanning industry, a sustainable way of leather processing has been demonstrated utilizing amine pendant metal–organic frameworks (MOF) UiO-66-NH2 along with glyoxal. It was found that an offer of 8% (w/w) MOF along with 6% (w/w) glyoxal increased the shrinkage temperature of the leathers to 89 ± 2 °C with exhaustion of MOF up to 84.3 ± 1.5%. The presence of cationic amine sites in the MOF aided in the fixation of anionic post-tanning agents and improved the adsorption of dyes from 74.3 ± 2.5% in the case of conventional leather to 91.8 ± 1.7% for experimental leather. In comparison to chrome-tanned leather, the experimental leathers were rated the highest in terms of dye fastness concerning rubbing action and against perspiration, showcasing the washable properties and better affinity and irreversible binding of dyes to the leather matrix. Mechanism studies through XPS spectroscopy revealed the interaction between the acidic amino acids of collagen and free zirconium metal sites and the imine linkage between amine pendants of MOF and basic amino acids of collagen protein. Further, the BOD5/COD ratio of 0.36 confirmed the better treatability of the wastewater emanating from the proposed process making it a sustainable tanning system. Thus, the combination of amine pendant MOFs with dialdehyde can be a promising strategy for the development of robust chrome-free leathers with excellent functional properties. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Leather production is a historic industry that still has an economic influence throughout the world. Leather making is done following a sequence of complex chemical and mechanical steps, using energy, quantity of water and chemicals, and generating waste. For several decades, many organizations have been working toward a cleaner tannery industry resulting in better practices, saving energy and water, and increasing wastewater treatment efficiency. Solid waste management remains a big issue. Another question posed today is the use of chromium in tanning. It is why a lot of research is now dedicated to metal‐free tanning solutions. Chromium alternatives exist but none can actually rival all the advantages of chromium and a balance must be found with environmental issues. To measure the environmental performance of leather, several tools are available. The LWG (Leather Working Group) audit is one of them. On the side of consumers, some reliable leather ecolabelings exist. Finally, life cycle assessment (LCA) is the most exhaustive tool for characterizing leather's environmental performance. Numerous LCA studies done in the past two decades underline the difficulty in obtaining general results, considering the large variety of processes used depending on tanneries, localization, and raw materials. In addition, the data available for LCA are still poor in regard to the specific data needed for leather chemicals. The best methods associated with new technologies, audit, and labeling lead leather production into a cleaner and environment‐friendly industry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Leather industry is traditionally characterized by the use of large amounts of chemical agents, some of which are toxic to human health and the environment. However, during the last years, many efforts have been made with the aim of successfully implement enzymes as agents for different leather production stages. The lipopeptides produced by the Bacillus spp. genus have excellent surfactants and antibacterial properties and may collaborate in the soaking stage of leather processing as well as in leather preservation. Moreover, Bacillus sp. proteases and lipopeptides can be co-produced in one culture medium, saving the production costs. In the present work, a screening of enzymatic activities was performed on 11 strains of the Bacillus sp. genus that have been isolated from samples of an artisan tannery from Salta, Argentina. In particular, the ability of B. amyloliquefaciens B65 to degrade α-type (nails, hair, wool) and β-type (feathers) keratin was demonstrated by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The co-production of proteases, keratinases, glycosidases, and lipopeptides of this strain was conducted at 37 °C in mineral media supplemented with chicken feathers. In these nutrient-deficient media, the strain secreted amylases, pectinases, proteases, keratinases, and collagenases. A MALDI-TOF study also revealed that the strains secreted homologues of kurstakins, iturins, surfactins, and fengycines lipopeptides families. Therefore, B. amyloliquefaciens B65 presents great industrial potential applications, not only for tanneries but also for other industries such as pharmaceuticals, food, textiles, and detergents, among others. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study explores the development and characterization of biodegradable leather using alginate derivatives as sustainable tanning agents, aiming to reduce the environmental impact associated with traditional leather tanning processes. Alginate, a natural polysaccharide derived from brown algae, was modified through ultrasound treatment to reduce viscosity and improve its application in leather tanning. This study investigated the use of sodium alginates as bio-based retanning agents, comparing their performance against that of conventional chromium-tanned and vegetable-tanned leathers, as well as synthetic alternatives such as leatherette, Piñatex®, and Desserto®. The physical, chemical, and thermal properties of the resulting leathers were assessed. The results demonstrated that alginate-based tanning agents could produce leather with comparable or superior properties to conventional and synthetic leathers, meeting the quality standards required for high-end footwear and leather goods. This research highlights the potential of alginate derivatives to serve as eco-friendly alternatives in the leather industry. The findings underscore the feasibility of integrating bio-based materials into industrial applications, promoting environmental conservation and resource efficiency. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim The leather industry is embracing eco-friendly technologies for both regulatory compliance and sustainable growth. While enzymatic depilation provides a greener alternative to traditional beamhouse methods, its complexity often leads to higher costs. To address this, we examined the performance of sheepskins' native bacterial flora in acetic acid conditions with low-environmental impact. Methods and results Utilizing metagenomic techniques, we analyzed the bacterial community dynamics during the depilation process. This investigation revealed a notable increase in microbial diversity and richness in acetic acid treatments compared to water treatments. At the class level, a post-processing decrease in Gammaproteobacteria dominance was observed, while Actinomycetia numbers surged in the acetic acid group. In contrast, the water group showed an increase in Bacteroidia. Order-level analysis indicated reductions in Pseudomonadales and increases in Actinomycetales with acetic acid treatment, whereas Flavobacteriales was more prevalent in water-treated liquors. At the family level, Moraxellaceae decreased and Micrococcaceae increased in the acetic acid group, in contrast to the marked rise of Weeksellaceae in the water group. Temporal analyses further highlighted the evolving bacterial landscapes under different treatments. Moreover, acetic acid treatment fostered a stable microbial community, beneficial for sustainable leather processing. Functional pathways were predicted using PICRUSt2. It showed that significantly enriched degradation pathways in the water group were less abundant in the acetic acid group, potentially preventing substrate matrix damage during depilation. Conclusion The study underscores the transformative potential of acetic acid for the leather industry, offering a pathway to reduce pollution while maintaining economic viability. By enhancing our understanding of microbial interactions during depilation, this study opens avenues for refining these eco-friendly techniques. Our findings advocate for a shift towards greener depilation methods and contribute to the broader dialogue on sustainable manufacturing practices, emphasizing the importance of leveraging indigenous microbial communities for environmental and economic gains. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study provides a comprehensive review of recent advancements in the application of diverse hydrocolloids in the formulation of fruit‐based leathers. It highlights the significant impact of hydrocolloids in improving the techno‐functional properties of these fruit leathers to align with consumer preferences. The review extends beyond traditional attributes, exploring the specific effects of hydrocolloids on fruit leather formulations. Key factors such as fruit selection, processing methods, the type and concentration of hydrocolloids, and their synergistic interactions are thoroughly evaluated. The review also highlights the importance of controlling parameters like pH, sugar content, total soluble solids (TSS), drying temperature, and drying time which are crucial for maintaining the quality attributes of fruit leathers. By addressing these aspects, the study offers a comprehensive understanding of the role hydrocolloids play in developing superior fruit leather products. Moreover, the textural, and sensory properties and retention of anti‐oxidant activity of fruit leathers are significantly improved with the use of hydrocolloids. This enhancement not only provides consumer demands for better texture and taste but also promotes the creation of healthier food products. Overall, this review underscores the potential of hydrocolloids in transforming fruit leather formulations, leading to more appealing and health‐conscious food options. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

From the beginning of human history to the present, one of the most widely practiced arts is still leather processing. Despite this, the damage that leather gives to the environment is increasing day by day with the rapidly developing technology and industrialization during processing. Along with this, ecological problems and pollution that threaten human health are emerging. Due to the increase in environmental pollution-related problems, environmental awareness has increased in recent years, sustainable and biodegradable materials have gained importance. In the 21st century, zero waste has been adopted as a life philosophy, increasing the importance of renewable and sustainable innovative materials. Fungi are among the most promising sources as biomaterials and have recently been used in product design. The goal of this research is to create healthy, economical, easily biodegradable, environmentally friendly innovative surfacee materials from Fomes fomentarius for the leather, textile, and ready-to-wear industries. In the investigation, the experimental study approach was applied. To gather F. fomentarius, fieldwork was conducted. Samples were brought to the laboratory and the identification process was carried out. Eight distinct experimental settings were established on four major frames for the examples, whose species was determined, and novel surface generation techniques were tested. As a result of the experiments, an innovative surface was obtained that can be used in the textile, ready-made clothing and leather sectors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Alkaline proteases derived from haloalkaliphiles, extremophilic microorganisms thriving in high-pH and high-salt environments, have garnered significant attention in recent years due to their unique biochemical properties and versatile applications. This review highlights the isolation, characterization, and biotechnological potential of alkaline proteases produced by haloalkaliphilic microorganisms. Haloalkaliphiles, found in soda lakes, saline-sodic soils, and other extreme habitats, have evolved to adapt and thrive under conditions characterized by elevated alkalinity and salinity. Alkaline proteases from these microorganisms exhibit high stability and activity under extreme pH and salinity, making them valuable candidates for various industrial processes. The review provides insights into the biochemical properties of alkaline proteases, including optimal pH, temperature, stability, and substrate specificity. Molecular studies have revealed unique structural features that contribute to the stability of these enzymes under harsh conditions, shedding light on their potential applications in challenging industrial processes. The industrial applications of alkaline proteases from haloalkaliphiles are diverse and encompass several sectors. Their role as powerful biocatalysts in detergent formulations is well-established, where they effectively break down proteinaceous stains under high pH conditions. Additionally, these enzymes find applications in leather processing, food industry, waste treatment, and pharmaceuticals, owing to their ability to operate efficiently in alkaline and saline environments. Their stability under extreme conditions, coupled with advances in biotechnological approaches, positions these enzymes as crucial components in the development of sustainable and efficient processes across various industries. Continued research in this field holds promise for discovering novel enzymes and unlocking their full potential for biotechnological innovation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Skin-based samples (leather, skin, and parchment) in archaeological, historic and museum settings are among the most challenging materials to radiocarbon (14C) date in terms of removing exogenous carbon sources—comparable to bone collagen in many respects but with much less empirical study to guide pretreatment approaches. In the case of leather, the 14C content of materials used in manufacturing the leather can vary greatly. The presence of leather manufacturing chemicals before pretreatment and their absence afterward is difficult to demonstrate, and the accuracy of dates depends upon isolating the original animal proteins and removing exogenous carbon. Parchments differ in production technique from leather but include similar unknowns. It is not clear that lessons learned in the treatment of one are always salient for treating the other. We measured the 14C content of variously pretreated leather, parchment, skin samples, and extracts, producing apparent ages that varied by hundreds or occasionally thousands of years depending upon sample pretreatment. Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) and C:N ratios provided insight into the chemical composition of carbon reservoirs contributing to age differences. The results of these analyses demonstrated that XAD column chromatography resulted in the most accurate 14C dates for leather and samples of unknown tannage, and FTIR allowed for the detection of contamination that might have otherwise been overlooked. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: Mycelium-based leather is a leather-like material composed of filamentous, branched, and fibrous vegetative parts of fungi, specifically fungal mycelium. This study aimed to assess the production process of mycelium-based leather in Indonesia, especially in the Mylea™ manufacturing process, by considering its environmental impact through a life cycle assessment. Method: The scope of the study starts from the cradle where mycelium is cultivated to the gate of the leather process. A functional unit of 1 m2 natural Mylea™ grade A was used as a reference. The inventory of mycelia as foreground data was gathered from the Indonesian factory with supporting data taken from relevant literature. The infrastructure is not included within the system boundaries. The ISO 14040 and 14044 standards were followed during the analysis. This study used the software OpenLCA 2.02 to carry out the impact assessment and used the Ecoinvent database v3.8. The life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) was carried out using the CML-IA baseline method with 11 impact categories. A sensitivity and uncertainty analysis were conducted to evaluate the environmental impact. Results: The finishing process is the main contributor to all the environmental impact categories. The LCIA results revealed that 1 m2 of natural Mylea™ grade A produces 57.15 kg of CO2 eq. Energy usage in the form of electricity consumption is the major cause, contributing 46.53 kg of CO2 eq to the total carbon footprint, followed by cotton at 6.67 kg of CO2 eq and (ethylene–vinyl acetate) EVA glue at 1.03 kg of CO2 eq. The finishing process, which uses cotton fabric, emerged as the primary environmental hotspot, contributing significantly to most impact categories, such as terrestrial ecotoxicity potential (TEP), abiotic depletion potential (ADP), and global warming potential (GWP100a). Alternative energy scenarios, including hydropower and solar energy, were examined, revealing their potential to reduce the environmental impact. Conclusion: The environmental impacts of mycelium-based leather production were identified in 11 categories. According to the findings, the most critical input parameter is the use of electricity sources. Therefore, several alternative energy sources, such as hydropower and solar photovoltaics, have been proposed to reduce environmental impacts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The swift pace of industrialization, urbanization, and burgeoning populations propel the surge in demand for manufactured goods and infrastructure. The wastewater produced during leather processing comprises a cocktail of organic and inorganic chemical contaminants that have the potential to affect the environment. This study focuses on conducting a comparative physico-chemical, analytical, in vitro, and in silico toxicity assessment and monitoring of leather effluent discharged from two different areas, namely, Dewas and Ranipet. The physicochemical analysis of collected effluents revealed higher levels of biochemical oxygen demand, chemical oxygen demand, total dissolved solids, total suspended solids, and heavy metals than the permissible limit fixed by the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB). The X-ray powder diffraction analysis of both samples identified the existence of crystalline and amorphous phases. The functional composition of compounds was identified through the analysis of Fourier-Transform Infrared Spectroscopy, which revealed the existence of C-H, O–H, N–H, C = O, C=C, and C≡C stretching vibrations. A variety of compound derivatives, including amines, organic acids, organometallic compounds, alcohols, hydrocarbons, esters, aldehydes, ketones, aromatic, and organogermanium, were identified by Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry. An assessment and monitoring of the phytotoxicity of effluent on the germination of Vigna radiata seeds reveals that (100%) of both Dewas and Ranipet leather effluents inhibited seed germination by 33.34% and 100%. The incorporation of Absorption-Distribution-Metabolism-Excretion-Toxicity (ADMET) analysis improved comprehension of the toxicity profiles of the GC–MS-identified compounds. Moreover, the result of docking studies revealed that cytochrome P450 showed the highest binding affinity towards 1,3-benzodioxol-2-one, hexahydro-cis with an affinity score of − 7.1 kcal/mol. The overall research revealed that the leather effluents from Dewas and Ranipet exhibit significant toxicity, highlighting the necessity of better wastewater management. In the future, innovative treatment methods and environmental friendly processes can be developed to minimize the detrimental effects of leather effluents. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fish skin leather is a sustainable alternative to traditional leather production. The goal of this study is to create a recipe for turning raw stingray leather into protective gloves for hands. The process flow of Stingray Leather Processing and optimization of each single step has been done. The technique is based on tanning agents, formulating new processing methods, conducting an extensive market analysis, and examining the environmental impact. The processed stingray leather was evaluated for resistance to abrasion, cur, and puncture resistance, and it was found that the stingray skin gloves showed better cut and abrasion resistance than the conventional gloves available in the market. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although the leather processing industry is vital in terms of employment creation, revenue generation, consumption of by‐products from the meat industry, and the production of the valuable commodity called leather, the industry is considered "red marked" due to the discharge of solid, liquid, and gaseous wastes from each unit operation. In addition, different cleaner production options were investigated to mitigate the negative effects of the leather industries. Cleaner options in curing were mostly focused on the use of plant extracts and the sodium chloride‐free preservation method, which eliminates the salinity and 70% TDS of the discharged water. The application of enzymes in the soak and unhairing facilitates the operation, reduces COD, BOD, and TDS in the effluent, and yields better results than the conventional method. Saltless and waterless pickling with nonswelling acid and chrome‐free tanning was considered cleaner options for pickling with salts and conventional tanning methods. This article provides an in‐depth analysis and review of conventional leather processing, hazardous chemicals in each unit operation, the environmental impact of conventional operations from curing to tanning, and cleaner leather production approaches in each unit operation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

For a long time, the leather industry has considered the chromium tanning process to be the easiest and fastest way to treat raw hides and transform them into valuable products. In the last few decades, increasing attention has been paid to the potential oxidation of the trivalent chromium in tanned leather. This happens for many reasons, such as the quality of the tanning agent or the adoption of good manufacturing practices. Anyway, the main problem, which is difficult to solve, is the sensibility of the free residual chromium tanned leather, which is high enough for possible harmful activity. Given this scenario, this work proposes a solution to decrease hexavalent chromium formation by using antioxidants during the leather tanning process. In this regard, a screening work was started, to find the worst-case scenario for trivalent chromium oxidation. To do this, commercial tanning products were employed, especially fatliquoring agents, which, in some cases, are the main source that could easily react with ROS (Reactive Oxygen Species) to drive chromium oxidation. After the determination of conditions, different groups of common antioxidants were tested to analyse the antioxidation performances and their possible use in the chromium-based tanning process. The results underline the efficient action of the antioxidants studied, paving the way for some interesting perspectives to limit the drawbacks of chromium tanned leather. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Vegetable tannins are environmentally friendly tanning agents. However, they generally impart a dark colour to the tanned leather and highly contribute to the organic load in wastewaters. In this study, we employed a purification protocol separately on chestnut tannin (CT) and sulfited quebracho tannin (QT) to obtain the purified fractions (PCT and PQT). These samples were characterised by GPC, 1H NMR, 13C NMR, FT-IR, and HPLC–DAD techniques and applied for tanning tests. Through the purification process, non-tannin components and smaller molecules such as gallic acid, glucopyranose, and catechin were effectively removed from CT and QT, which consequently led to the reduced moisture content, pH value, and lighter colour of purified fractions. The crust leathers processed with PCT and PQT showed desirable light shades. Moreover, the organic loads in PCT and PQT tanning wastewater were reduced by 13.5% and 19.1%, respectively, when compared to those in traditional CT and QT tanning wastewater. Additionally, the physical and mechanical characteristics of crust leathers processed with PCT and PQT were comparable to those processed with CT and QT. Thus, purification of vegetable tannins may serve as a feasible strategy for producing light-colored vegetable-tanned leather while minimizing organic pollutant discharge during the vegetable tanning process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Increased chromium usage in industrial applications as chromium III and chromium VI, include metal plating, steel alloys, leather processing, medical applications, and chromium dyeing operations, has resulted in water pollution by Cr (VI) ions, which being toxic and carcinogenic has developed into significant environmental and health problems. The purpose of this research is to remove Cr (VI) ions from synthetic wastewater utilising modified sawdust as an inexpensive adsorbent. Two modified sawdust samples were produced, one using sodium hydroxide and one using sulfuric acid. The experimentation, based on several batch systems, has been undertaken at 25–65°C with 0.5–1.5 g/L sawdust dosage. These conditions were applied to remove Cr (VI) ions at concentrations of 1–6 ppm at pH values from 3 to 10. The results have shown that adsorption onto sawdust followed an intraparticle diffusion mechanism with various rate parameters from 0.65 to 5.24 mg g−1 min, for treated and untreated sawdust. The distribution coefficient kc, enthalpy ΔH, thermodynamic standard free energy ΔG, and entropy ΔS were determined from a number of temperature studies. Kinetic studies showed that the pseudo‐second order model gave the optimum correlation to the experimental results. The Freundlich and Langmuir isotherms were applied to analyse the experimental equilibrium results. The optimised conditions for the adsorption process were obtained using the D‐optimal design method, and the maximum removal percentage of 100%, was determined at pH = 3, T = 25°C, adsorbent dosage = 1.5 g/L, and an initial Cr (VI) concentration = 5.72 ppm. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The leather processing industry always experiences growth every year. However, at the stage of processing leather to become raw material for a product, it produces a lot of solid waste containing hazardous materials used during the process. The resulting hazardous materials can cause pollution to the surrounding environment. Hence, there needs to be a solution to handle this solid waste, so that it does not pollute the surrounding environment. Magot Black Soldier Fly (BSF) cultivation training is a technique that can be used as a solution to process solid waste from the leather tanning industry so that it has high selling value. In a study, BSF cultivation shows circular economic results and future opportunities for investors, which will lead to increased demand. The cultivation of BSF as an alternative for processing waste into organic fertilizer and animal feed is a promising technology. It is worth inoculating, especially in countries that have low incomes with expensive fertilizer and animal feed costs. BSF maggot cultivation training was conducted for MSME players in the Sukaregang leather industry in the Garut district. The results of the evaluation were that 99% of the training activity participants felt that the training provided was very targeted and the material provided was appropriate, and easy to understand. So it can be concluded that the training provided is appropriate and beneficial for leather industry MSMEs, whoever participates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Intangible cultural heritage (ICH) represents living cultural expressions and practices that are part of the heritage of a community, and their preservation and transmission are considered highly important. Various methods and tools have been applied so far for the digitization and dissemination of ICH content including a wide range of technologies. Mobile augmented reality is a promising solution along this path that enables the overlap of digital and real-world information in an engaging and efficient manner. Despite the widespread use of AR in cultural heritage, there are not many studies regarding the user experience, the learning outcomes, and the way in which users observe and interact with the virtual content. This paper presents a mobile augmented reality installation that re-enacts the stages of leather tanning process, adopting a novel approach that augments 3D content upon a physical scale model of an old tannery. This approach pursues to transmit the cultural value of traditional craftmanship to visitors of the building and associate its architectural elements to its history and use. A user evaluation was conducted aiming to measure the users' engagement, learning, and experience using the installation. The encouraging results led to a follow-up study about the impact of the physical scale model on the experience. Two variations of the experience have been studied, one with a physical scale model and one with a digital-only version in a between-subject design. The results of the two studies provide evidence that the proposed approach generated a positive user experience and evident learning gain and was considered easy to use, highlighting its potential to be widely adopted in buildings with architectural value. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The post‐tanning process of leather making involves the of large quantities of auxiliary chemicals to enhance the functionalities of the leather. Hence, developing multifunctional polymers are essential to reduce the pollution load and enhance sustainability. Herein, we report the synthesis of multifunctional retanning and fatliquoring agent using a hydroxyethyl methacrylate (HEMA) monomer by modifying the hydroxyl group to carboxyl and long‐chain hydrocarbon along with quaternary ammonium monomer. The resulting polymer has been subsequently used in the tanning and post‐tanning process. The influence of the carboxyl group increases the metal uptake of the aluminum (twofold) and zirconium (1.5‐fold) tanning agent, and hydrothermal stability of the polymer‐treated leathers is 74 and 81°C for aluminum and zirconium tanning, respectively. The experimental leather showed uniform pore size distribution and better organoleptic characteristics than the control. Introducing the quaternary ammonium group in the polymer increased dye exhaustion in the experimental process up to 97%. The anti‐bacterial studies show the polymer is effective against gram‐positive species due to electrostatic interaction. The biochemical analysis of the experiment process shows higher biodegradability (0.62). Thus, the present study opens a new avenue for a sustainable replacement for conventional post‐tanning chemicals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• The aging process of leather was artificially accelerated. • Changes in secondary collagen structure was analyzed by deconvoluted FT-IR spectrum. • Thermal stability of vegetable-tanned leather was studied by TG/DTG. Leather artifacts, mainly composed of collagen and tanning agents, possess significant historical importance. However, external factors could lead to the aging of such artifacts during preservation. Therefore, it is crucial to examine the impact of various factors on leather aging. In order to know the effects of high temperature and humidity conditions on the changes of leather artifacts, the traditional vegetable tanning agents (chestnut, tara, quebracho, and mimosa) were used to tan the pickled sheepskins to prepare leather artifact model samples. The leather artifact model samples were aged for 0, 2, 4, 8, 16, and 32 days at 80°C and 40–80 % relative humidity (RH). The changes in appearance, structure and thermal stability of the vegetable-tanned leather samples under the synergistic impact of temperature and RH were analyzed using total reflectance-Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR), chromatography, and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The thermal degradation of the samples before and after being tanned with vegetable tanning agents was analyzed using thermal gravimetric analyzer (TGA) analysis. Furthermore, the shrinkage temperature (Ts), tensile strength and elongation at break of the samples were investigated during different aging periods. The study aims to provide valuable insights into the stability of leather artifacts during long-term storage, as well as guidance for their restoration and conservation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The current study set out to assess and create long-term solutions for improving environmental performance concerning water use, wastewater production, and treatment at Syntan plant (glass-lined vessel unit) and application laboratory (small-scale leather retanning. Based on evaluations and analyses, best available techniques including water gauging, pressurized vessel washing, dedication of vessels to similar production, reuse techniques, developing commercial grade intermediate products from wash water, managing cooling water and developing reuse methods of reverse osmosis reject water were applied to reduce water consumption and effluent generation in process and non-process activities. Furthermore, the reduced effluent was subjected to treat using electrochemical processes, i.e., electrocoagulation and electro-Fenton, before it was drained to outside environment. As a result of the applications, 0%-100% change was measured in various process and non-process activities, whereas, 12.8%-100% reduction was measured in effluent. Soft cooling water consumption was reduced by 46.7%. The results of treated effluent parameters were compared and found the final removal efficiencies of total dissolved solids (51.4%), total suspended solids (99.2%), chemical oxygen demand (98.5%) and electric conductivity (67.7%). It is concluded that this study can be considered as a successful model to increased water efficiency in chemical industries, Furthermore, it could serve as a building block for the incorporation of cleaner and sustainable production approach into national agenda and to overcome stern issues of high-water and energy consumption and effluent management in different industries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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The study investigates the potential of anaerobic co-digestion (AcoD) as a sustainable solution for managing putrescible organic waste generated by leather processing. Three experiments were conducted to assess the impact of various tannery wastes, pretreatment methods, and waste combinations on methane production. Experiment 1 demonstrated that co-digesting tannery wastewater primary sludge (TWPS) and fleshings significantly increased methane yield compared to digesting TWPS alone, though the addition of chromium- and vegetable-tanned leather wastes decreased yield. Experiment 2 explored TWPS pretreatment methods and found that ultrasonic pretreatment increased soluble chemical oxygen demand (SCOD) but did not significantly improve methane yield, suggesting that pretreatment may not be necessary. Experiment 3 revealed that increasing the proportion of fleshings to TWPS resulted in higher methane yield, ranging from 226.52 mL/gVS with 6% fleshings to 395.71 mL/gVS and 538.34 mL/gVS with 12% and 20% of fleshings, respectively. Additionally, this increase in fleshings also led to a reduction in digester volume. These findings highlight the importance of AcoD in addressing both environmental and economic challenges in the leather industry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study explored the potential application of polyphenols from Pinus halepensis bark in leather tanning. The primary objective was to characterize these polyphenols. The extraction and atomization processes proved efficient, reducing moisture content to 7.4%, increasing tannin content from 26.2% to 45.1%, and reducing insoluble substances by 77.5%. High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) coupled with mass spectrometry identified and quantified various polyphenolic compounds, including (+)-catechin, (+)-taxifolin, protocatechuic acid, and procyanidin B2. Notably, tannic catechin dimers were detected. Lignin was effectively removed through filtration. Concentrations of protocatechuic acid, (+)-catechin, (+)-taxifolin, (−)-epicatechin, and procyanidin B1 were significantly higher in the extract than in the powder, with the extract showing 1214.3 mg/kg of protocatechuic acid, 2098.0 mg/kg of (+)-catechin, 4017.0 mg/kg of (+)-taxifolin, 2163.0 mg/kg of (−)-epicatechin, and 917.0 mg/kg of procyanidin B1. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, decolorization via a bleaching operation was carried out on chrome and dye spotted skins with several bleaches to valorize the defective leather materials. Sodium perborate, hydrogen peroxide, sodium thiosulfate, sodium percarbonate, and oxalic acid were applied as bleaching agents in production. Sodium perborate by itself was applied and combined with other bleaching agents. Combined processes were also supported with an emulsifier agent for uniform distribution and deeper penetration of bleaching agents into the fibers. Color changes and differences on leather products were determined by Konica Minolta CM-3600d test apparatus spectrophotometrically before and after the applications. Bleached leathers were processed again, re-dyed, and finished after the bleaching operations. Then, bleaching performances of the single and combination applications were also evaluated for the leather strength indicators by analyzing tensile and tear strength of the final products as well as chromium (VI) oxidation of basic chromium (III) salts used in tanning. Antibacterial properties of the final bleached products were also investigated. As a result, sodium perborate was found to provide the most effective and safe bleaching without any physical and chemical deformation by creating antibacterial activity on leather. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The tanning industry needs to implement changes and adopt innovative technologies to guarantee efficient management, focused on environmental, social and economic sustainability. The work was carried out in 2022, in order to propose improvements to the "Arte del Cuero" project on the Isla de la Juventud, especially to treat the cattle skins generated in the "Abel Santamaría Cuadrado" Meat-Based Business Unit. Data collection was carried out through various sources, including the production technology area, interviews with mini-industry producers and the "Abel Santamaría" Meat-Based Business Unit, as well as through direct observations of technological processes. Among the problems identified are: difficulties in processing, obsolete equipment, insufficient capacity, limited transportation and lack of economic study. Among the highlighted results, the need to coordinate with livestock production units for the care and marking of animal skins is emphasized, thus guaranteeing the optimal use of all available hides. Fulfillment of the objective not only yielded concrete results, but was also involved in the promotion of leather processing through a mini-tannery industry, with the collaboration of local actors to strengthen the project. Specific actions were proposed that not only improved the efficiency and sustainability of the production process, but also guaranteed the availability of raw materials at the local level to consolidate the project as a reference for the use of skins generated by the meat industry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Tanoak (Notholithocarpus densiflorus) is an evergreen tree in the Fagaceae family found in California and southern Oregon. Historically, tanoak acorns were an important food source for Native American tribes, and the bark was used extensively in the leather tanning process. Long considered a disjunct relictual element of the Asian stone oaks (Lithocarpus spp.), phylogenetic analysis has determined that the tanoak is an example of convergent evolution. Tanoaks are deeply divergent from oaks (Quercus) of the Pacific Northwest and comprise a new genus with a single species. These trees are highly susceptible to "sudden oak death" (SOD), a plant pathogen (Phytophthora ramorum) that has caused widespread deaths of tanoaks. In this study, we set out to assemble the genome and perform comparative studies among a number of individuals that demonstrated varying levels of susceptibility to SOD. First, we sequenced and de novo assembled a draft reference genome of N. densiflorus using cobarcoded library processing methods and an MGI DNBSEQ-G400 sequencer. To increase the contiguity of the final assembly, we also sequenced Oxford Nanopore long reads to 30× coverage. To our knowledge, the draft genome reported here is one of the more contiguous and complete genomes of a tree species published to date, with a contig N50 of ∼1.2 Mb, a scaffold N50 of ∼2.1 Mb, and a complete gene score of 95.5% through BUSCO analysis. In addition, we sequenced 11 genetically distinct individuals and mapped these onto the draft reference genome, enabling the discovery of almost 25 million single nucleotide polymorphisms and ∼4.4 million small insertions and deletions. Finally, using cobarcoded data, we were able to generate a complete haplotype coverage of all 11 genomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The development of new tanning agents in the leather sector is urgently needed to cope with the increasing environmental pressure on the use of current tanning materials and processes. The best alternative tanning agent to replace chromium which is not environmentally friendly is titanium-based sulfate salts (IV). These compounds are most recommended to be developed and used in new, cleaner tanning processes for the leather industry. The main source of Ti(SO4)2 comes from the mineral ilmenite (FeTiO3) extracted using H2SO4. The extraction process will produce a mixture of Ti(SO4)2 and Fe(SO4) in the H2SO4-FeSO4-Ti(SO4)2-H2O system at high acidity of H2SO4. The purpose of this study is to separate each of these compounds based on their solubility in methyl alcohol. This study discusses the comparison of feed and residue with FTIR, residual characteristics with XRD and XRF. While the results of quantitative analysis of each final product of Ti(SO4)2 and Fe(SO4) compounds using XRF. Qualitative results using FTIR show that Ti(SO4)2 images are different from FeSO4. The %recovery result in the optimal state of H2SO4 extraction obtained Ti(SO4)2 was 20.6%, while FeSO4 was only 9.2% from the feed of 30 g ilmenite. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Bating animal hides with trypsin is an essential step for making leathers. But the mechanism why the calcium in the hide influences the bating performance remains unclear. Here, the enzyme activity of trypsin was determined using N-alpha-benzoyl-L-arginine ethyl ester, bovine albumin (BSA) and collagen fibres as substrates in the presence and absence of calcium salts. The interactions of calcium with trypsin, BSA and collagen were analysed by fluorescence spectroscopy and molecular docking. Data reveal that calcium which binds to BSA and collagen improves the structural stability and enzyme resistance of hide proteins. As a result, a high calcium content of delimed hide is useful to obtain an intact surface of bated hide. However, a low calcium content of hide for pickling is necessary for producing leathers with high physical properties and uniform colour. According to these results, a novel bating system involving deliming, bating and redeliming operations was developed. This system provides a high calcium content of hide for bating and a low calcium content of hide for subsequent pickling and tanning, which effectively reduces the risk of hide damage and improves the physical properties and colour uniformity of leather. [Display omitted] • How calcium salts affect hydrolysis of hide proteins with trypsin in bating was revealed. • A high calcium content of delimed hide protects the grain surface of hide. • A low calcium content of hide is necessary for high physical properties of leather. • A novel system involving deliming, bating, and redeliming operations was designed. • This system effectively reduces the risk of hide damage and can ensure leather quality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: Burdekin plums (BP) are the fruits of Pleiogynium timoriense (DC.) Leenh, a tree native to Australia. In this study, BP fruit leathers were developed by blending BP puree with apple puree (0%–80% levels) to make five formulations of BP fruit leathers (100BP, 80BP, 60BP, 40BP, 20BP). Physicochemical parameters and microbial stability of fruit leathers were studied during six‐month storage at ambient conditions (temperature 16–25 °C, humidity 60%–77%). Results showed that BP leathers had a water activity from 0.60 to 0.64 and moisture content from 21% to 25%, and both were stable during storage. 20BP had the highest score for all colour parameters measured and had the lowest value in hardness. Reduction in redness and chroma and an increase in hue were observed in all leathers after storage. The total content of cyanidin 3‐galactoside and cyanidin 3‐glucoside decreased from 400–1600 mg/kg DW to 100–500 mg/kg DW after processing into leathers then to 9–70 mg/kg DW after storage. A decrease in catechins was also observed after puree was processed into leather and after the 6 months of storage, whereas an increase in gallic acid, ellagic acid, quercetin 3‐glucoside, trigalloylglucose was observed particularly in 20BP. Total phenolic content (ranging from 6 to 24 mg GAE/g DW) and antioxidant capacity (ranging from 80 to 240 μmol Fe2+/g DW) remained relatively stable after processing and storage with a slight reduction in 80BP and 100BP. Fruit leathers were microbiologically safe and shelf‐stable during the 6 months of storage. These results demonstrated the potential of BP to be processed into shelf‐stable fruit leathers rich in bioactive phenolics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The object of the study was the process of coagulation treatment of wastewater of leather industry enterprises. The treatment of samples of real wastewater from a leather production was investigated. Such wastewater is characterized by high concentrations of pollutants of varying degrees of dispersion, which is due to the use of a large number of various chemicals in the leather production process. During technological operations related to the skinning and processing of skins, these substances enter the wastewater, which is discharged into the sewer. A peculiarity of leather production wastewater is large fluctuations in composition and volume, high concentrations of pollutants, and an increased content of suspended solids. Such waters have certain toxicity. The existing methods of wastewater treatment of leather industry enterprises do not provide the necessary treatment efficiency, do not allow to create a closed circulation of water at enterprises, to use or regenerate valuable components of wastewater, and to ensure their economically feasible disposal. Therefore, the research is aimed at improving the process of coagulation wastewater treatment of leather factories using mathematical modeling and optimization methods. This will make it possible to modernize existing wastewater treatment schemes. The experiments were carried out on the Niva Jar-test laboratory unit, which allows simultaneous examination of 6 samples. Samples of wastewater from leather production after the fattening-filling and dyeing stages were studied. The effectiveness of the coagulation process was determined by the degree of wastewater treatment. The factors were analyzed and the intervals of variation of factors that have a significant impact on the process of coagulation treatment of wastewater from leather factories were established. An experiment plan was drawn up and implemented in order to study the effect of coagulants based on aluminum and ferrum, as well as flocculants on the quality of wastewater treatment. The choice of quality indicators of the coagulation process is substantiated. A statistical analysis of the results of experimental studies was performed, a correlational analysis of the interdependence of parameters and indicators of the quality of the coagulation process was performed. Aluminum-based coagulant has been found to be more effective than iron-based coagulant. The results of mathematical modeling were used to determine the optimal parameters of the coagulation process: pH 10, coagulant dose – 2.5 g/dm³, flocculant dose – 100 mg/dm³. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The use of collagen is the recent development in various medical fields. Huge quantities of hide and skin trimmings are generated during the leather processing are wasted or underutilized. Trimmings contain collagen which can be beneficially extracted and utilized for high value products. Poly methyl methacrylate based denture materials exhibit serious concerns such as high porosity, presence of residual monomer, shrinkage, distortion and high rate of deterioration of the materials. This study aims to incorporate extracted Type I collagen with polymer to obtain denture base and investigate its chemical and mechanical properties. The present research methodology also reduces the quantity of monomer and acrylic resin usage. The collagen was extracted from animal skin and hide trimmings which are otherwise disposed as wastes. This study investigated the effect of visco-elastic characteristics of resulted specimens and their transition temperature, mechanical properties, decomposition temperature and leachability. The collagen-based specimens have better tensile strength with high decomposition temperature compared to control specimens. Scanning Electron Microscopy analysis revealed that the experimental specimens was cohesive and homogeneous which explained the higher tensile and decomposition values. The study suggests that collagen cross-linked acrylic denture base exhibit better mechanical and thermal resistance properties when compared to control specimens. The study indicates that biomaterials are emerging as smart products of value in human health. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Biodegradability is a crucial indicator to evaluate the sustainability of leather. Herein, a rapid method for biodegradation test in an aqueous medium by measuring biochemical oxygen demand was used to determine the biodegradability of leather from different tanning methods, tanning conditions and process stages. In addition, the difference in biodegradability between leather and leather-like synthetic materials were investigated. Chrome-free tanned leather showed higher degree of biodegradation and faster biodegradation rate than chrome tanned leather. Among them, leathers tanned with biomass-based tanning agents were much easier to biodegrade because the crosslinking network of tanned leather constructed with biomass was more susceptible to microbial attack. The enhancement of tanning effects through changing tanning methods and conditions (such as tanning agent dosage, pH and temperature) resulted in the decline of leather biodegradability. Future development of novel chrome-free tanning technologies should balance between these two aspects. The biodegradability of leather from tanning to post-tanning to finishing showed a stepwise decrease because various chemicals were applied and bound to leather during processing. Even so, finished leather still possessed significantly higher biodegradability compared to leather-like PU and microfiber synthetic materials, demonstrating superior environmental sustainability of natural leather. The results are expected to provide support for the evaluation of the ecological properties of leather and green upgrade of the leather industry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Currently, the textile industry is a poorly automated sector, due in part to problems in the handling of deformable leather and textile parts during production operations. In this work, several problems in the handling process of leather and textile parts are addressed, introducing methods to increase the automation of the process. A pneumatic actuator designed to pick up textile or leather parts avoiding their deformation during transport has been developed. This actuator maximizes the number of gripping points to improve handling, making it more stable and efficient. Additionally, a vision system has been implemented in the part-picking task which, in conjunction with the CAD information of the part, sends the modified gripping position of the part to the robot. This allows customized handling of each textile or leather part. Finally, validation tests have been carried out on this development, both in simulations and in laboratory conditions, demonstrating its viability and direct applicability in the production line. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The leather industry generates a significant amount of various wastes, and their utilisation is a serious task for researchers. Ways to reuse or decontaminate such waste are being developed intensively. Unfortunately, the reuse of finished leather, which eventually becomes waste, is almost unexplored. The present research is designed to evaluate the potential of finished leather hydrolysis to obtain protein hydrolysates suitable for reuse in leather processing and to establish factors that influence leather quality during such an application. Enzyme preparation Vilzim PRO Conc was characterised as a potential agent for such hydrolysis. The addition of 3-4% Vilzim PRO Conc is appropriate for the enzymatic stage of the hydrolysis process. It was established that after alkalineenzymatic hydrolysis of used leather powder the obtained hydrolysates are complicated systems containing proteins, chromium compounds, dyes, fatliquoring materials, etc. Hydrolysates could be used for the dyeing of chromed leather. The method of preparation for dyeing and dyeing of wetblue leather with the use of hydrolysate influences the depth of dye penetration and the quality of finished leather. It was established that the neutralisation process is not necessary before such dyeing. Also, an increased amount of formic acid is necessary to improve the bonding of fatliquors with dermal tissue after treatment with hydrolysate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article provides a detailed account of the conservation process for Tutankhamun's leather scale armor. The armor was in a critical condition and required extensive restoration. Various imaging techniques were used to examine the armor's surface and identify hidden features and defects. Microbiological testing revealed fungal and bacterial infections, and spectroscopy confirmed the presence of previous conservation materials. The conservation procedures included cleaning, separating incorrectly attached scales, straightening the linen support, consolidating textiles, and reconstructing the scales. After conservation, measurements were taken and the manufacturing techniques of the armor were revealed. The article concludes that the conservation methods used were effective and provides recommendations for future projects. [Extracted from the article]

Loquat (Eriobotrya japonica Lindl.) is a perishable fruit with a huge potential for processing. In this study, the effects of food processing techniques and in vitro gastrointestinal digestion on the phenolics of loquat products were investigated. For this purpose, the results of processed loquat products including juice, nectar, leather, pulp, and jam were compared to the control loquat samples. Spectrophotometric and chromatographic methods were used to analyze the total phenolic (TPC) and total flavonoid contents (TFC), individual phenolic compounds (chlorogenic acid, p-coumaric acid, epicatechin) as well as total antioxidant capacity by DPPH and CUPRAC assays. The TPC and TFC of loquat products varied from 61.2±5.4 to 855.7±36.0 mg GAE/100 g and 37.2±1.6 to 979.5±65.3 mg CE/100 g, respectively. As in total phenolics, flavonoids, and antioxidants, the highest chlorogenic acid, p-coumaric acid, and epicatechin contents were obtained in loquat leather as 201.20±9.99 mg/100 g, 47.50±2.21 mg/100 g, and 46.87±0.28 mg/100 g, respectively. In addition to these, after in vitro gastrointestinal digestion, it was revealed that loquat leather had the highest TPC, TFC, and total antioxidant capacity values compared to other samples. Results have indicated that the phenolic content of fresh loquat fruits could be improved or protected, mainly by processing into leather and/or jam. Thus, the product scale for this fruit can be increased by obtaining foods with high nutritional value. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]