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Background: The absence of Physical Education (PE) from the South African school curriculum before its reintroduction in recent years contributed to health concerns regarding the low physical activity (PA) levels of children and adolescents in South Africa. Purpose: This study evaluated the effects of a once-a-week enhanced quality PE programme on the PA levels of South African Grade 7 learners. Methods: Using a pre-test and post-test control-group design, 110 Grade 7 learners aged 12-13 years (experimental school, n = 40; control schools, n = 70) from two primary schools in Potchefstroom, South Africa, were studied. They participated in a 12-week PE intervention programme based on the guidelines of the South African Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement, which allocates one hour per week to PE teaching. The intervention included five quality-enhancing components, namely well-trained teachers, homework activities, a reward system, hand-made apparatus and the monitoring of activity intensity. In the experimental school, 40 learners were randomly assigned from the total Grade 7 class (n = 124) to the experimental group, while two control groups (n = 37 and n = 33) were used, one from the same school as the experimental school and the other from a different school. Additionally, to control for PE teacher interaction effect, the experimental group was divided into 4 experimental sub-groups of 10 learners each, which were taught by 4 different PE teachers, and the pre-test and post-test data of these experimental sub-groups were also analysed. Children's PA levels were measured before and after the intervention using a validated Children's Leisure Activities Study Survey questionnaire. The Kruskal-Wallis and Wilcoxon signed-rank tests were used to evaluate the effects of the intervention programme. Results: No significant differences were found within the experimental group between the 4 experimental sub-groups and between the 2 control groups at pre- and post-test measurements (p > 0.05). There was a significant effect for the experimental group as a whole, as results of the total experimental group showed statistically significant increases in moderate PA (ES = 0.47; p = 0.014), vigorous PA (ES = 0.48; p = 0.012) and total PA (ES = 0.51; p = 0.008) as well as decreases in sedentary behaviours (ES = 0.39; p = 0.041) after the 12-week intervention programme, whereas no significant changes were found in the control group. Statistically significant improvements were also found in all 4 experimental sub-groups between pre- and post-tests for the time spent in moderate PA (p = 0.028-0.05; ES = 0.23-0.64), vigorous PA (p = 0.018-0.036; ES = 0.23-0.63), total PA (p = 0.017-0.05; ES = 0.30-0.68) and sedentary time (p = 0.014-0.049; ES = 0.26-0.66), whereas no marked changes were observed among the two control groups, indicating no PE teacher interaction effect on the results. Conclusions: The enhanced quality PE programme can be used as a valuable framework for PE implementation targeted at promoting learners' PA levels, even in the presence of restricted time allocation, and limited teaching and learning resources.

A worldwide survey by Hardman and Marshall (2001) indicated a decline in the state and status of Physical Education (PE) in many countries. Using a modified Physical Education and School Sport (PESS) questionnaire (Bailey and Dismore, 2005), we examined age and gender differences in the perception and value orientation of PESS among 285 children in South-West Poland. Data analysis yielded marked age and gender differences with respect to feelings about PESS, its importance relative to other school subjects and development of social skills. Children's responses were categorized as physical, cognitive, social, affective, lifestyle and environmental based on the outcomes and benefits of PESS (Bailey, 2006). The children attributed their positive feelings toward PESS and favorite part of PESS to the physical domain. This finding was consistent across age and gender categories, except that a tendency toward decline in the importance of the physical domain was found among older children. The need for learners' value orientation to be considered by teachers and curriculum developers to design and implement quality PESS programs is discussed. (Contains 3 tables and 1 figure.)

Abstract Background No information exists on the nutritional status of primary school children residing in Makurdi, Nigeria. It is envisaged that the data could serve as baseline data for future studies, as well as inform public health policy. The aim of this study was to assess the prevalence of malnutrition among urban school children in Makurdi, Nigeria. Methods Height and weight of 2015 (979 boys and 1036 girls), aged 9-12 years, attending public primary school in Makurdi were measured and the body mass index (BMI) calculated. Anthropometric indices of weight-for-age (WA) and height-for-age (HA) were used to estimate the children's nutritional status. The BMI thinness classification was also calculated. Results Underweight (WAZ < -2) and stunting (HAZ < -2) occurred in 43.4% and 52.7%, respectively. WAZ and HAZ mean scores of the children were -0.91(SD = 0.43) and -0.83 (SD = 0.54), respectively. Boys were more underweight (48.8%) than girls (38.5%), and the difference was statistically significant (p = 0.024; p < 0.05). Conversely, girls tend to be more stunted (56.8%) compared to boys (48.4%) (p = 0.004; p < 0.05). Normal WAZ and HAZ occurred in 54.6% and 44.2% of the children, respectively. Using the 2007 World Health Organisation BMI thinness classification, majority of the children exhibited Grade 1 thinness (77.3%), which was predominant at all ages (9-12 years) in both boys and girls. Gender wise, 79.8% boys and 75.0% girls fall within the Grade I thinness category. Based on the WHO classification, severe malnutrition occurred in 31.3% of the children. Conclusions There is severe malnutrition among the school children living in Makurdi. Most of the children are underweight, stunted and thinned. As such, providing community education on environmental sanitation and personal hygienic practices, proper child rearing, breast-feeding and weaning practices would possibly reverse the trends.

Abstract Background Menarcheal age is a sensitive indicator of environmental conditions during childhood. The aim of study is to determine the age at menarche and growth status in adolescents in a rural area of Tarka, Wannune, Nigeria. Methods Data on 722 female students (aged 12-18 years) were collected in February 2009. Height and weight were measured. Body mass index (BMI; kg m-2) was used as an index of relative weight. Results Mean and median menarcheal age calculated by probit analysis were 13.02 (SD 3.0) (95% CI: 13.02-13.07), and age 13.00 (SD 2.8) (95% CI: 12.98-13.04), respectively. Girls who reach menarche are significantly heavier and taller with higher BMIs than those of their pre-menarcheal peers. Conclusion The age of menarche is probably still declining in Nigeria. Although BMI is an important factor in the onset of menstruation, some other unmeasured environmental variables may be implicated in this population.

In order to determine whether aerobic fitness is associated with individual features of metabolic syndrome (MS) and metabolic risk score (MRS), a sample of 206 adolescents (Girls=105; Boys=101) was assessed. Participants were divided into two (fit: n=114; unfit: n=92) groups based on their estimated aerobic fitness levels. Prevalence of MS in the total sample was 5.3% with majority of cases from the unfit group (3.4%). 47.6% of the participants had one or more metabolic risks, again majority from the unfit group (30.6%). When adolescents with one or more metabolic risks were compared with their non-risk peers, those without risk demonstrated significantly (p<0.05) more favorable profile in all features of MS, MRS and peak V O2. Aerobic fitness was significantly (p<0.05) correlated with all features of MS and MRS except for triglycerides. Fitness moderately predicted MRS (R²=19.7%), after controlling for percent fat (% fat). Unfit adolescents were 7.1 (95% CI=3.80-13.20) times likely to develop risk of MS compared to their fit peers. Low aerobic fitness was independently associated with MRS or any component of MS in Nigerian youth. These results further reinforce the need to include aerobic fitness among public health strategies aimed at preventing the risk of MS in youth. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sport confidence is a critical mental attribute that influences sport performance. Research on sources of sport confidence among athletes is largely inconclusive. This study postulated that the sources of sport confidence among the athletes are not mediated by selected contextual demographic factors such as gender, level of study, type of sport and playing experience. A cross-sectional research design was used to examined the sources of sport confidence among randomly selected university athletes (n =183). Data were collected using the Sources of Sport Confidence Questionnaire as articulated in Vealey model, and the values converted into percentage of maximum possible scores. Among the highest rated sources of sport confidence were coaches' leadership (63.31±17.22), vicarious experience (63.11±9.44), mastery (62.93±19.00) and demonstration of ability (61.60±17.54). Athletes differed significantly across gender in vicarious experience (p < .03), with males recording higher scores. Social support also yielded significant difference (p = .02) across year of study with finalists having lower scores. Mastery, physical and mental preparation, social support and vicarious experience showed significant difference (p < .01) in favour of those who had longer playing experience. Findings of the study have practical implications for student-athlete preparation for sport competition. Management of university sports should consider the implications of the diverse demographics in order to optimise sport confidence among student athletes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study evaluated the reliability and construct validity of a modified Children's Leisure Activities Study Survey (CLASS) questionnaire for 12-year old South African children. Testretest reliability of the questionnaire was examined in 108 (n=45 boys; n=63 girls) school children aged 12 years at 3 weeks interval. Construct validity was assessed by comparing data on the reported minutes spent in physical activities (PAs) obtained from the CLASS questionnaire responses with ten physical fitness (PF) parameters, assessed using the Eurofit test battery. Cronbach alpha's test of internal consistency, intra-class correlation coefficients (ICC) and the paired t-test were used to determine reliability. Validity was evaluated with the Spearman correlation coefficients. Substantial internal consistency and significant Intra-class correlations estimates for all intensities of PA and sedentary time (ST) were found (Cronbach's alpha ranged from 0.71 to 0.84, p < 0.05; ICC ranged from 0.73 to 0.95, p < 0.05). Non-significant differences were found in the means of test and retest measurements. BMI had moderate negative correlations with both moderate and total PA (r = -0.34, r = -0.36, respectively, p < 0.05). Aerobic fitness was significantly correlated with all intensities of PA and ST (r = 0.63, 0.57, 0.43 and-0.34, respectively; p < 0.05). ST was significantly and negatively associated with sit-ups (r = -0.38, p<0.01) and shuttle run (r = -0.29, p<0.05). Similarly, the results of the shuttle run (10x5 meter run), sit-ups, bent arm hang, and standing broad jump tests, had significant associations with vigorous PA. The CLASS questionnaire is a valid and reliable measure of PA in 12-year old South African children. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper discusses a uniquely African people's modern sporting culture in colonial and apartheid South African society. It documents the history of a previously disadvantaged population's and/or black people's (specifically AmaXhosa of the then Cape Colony in the 19th and the 20th centuries and the Cape Province following the unification of South Africa in 1910) sport (cricket and rugby union) and way of life. The history and the development of a sporting culture in commonwealth countries, including South Africa is well-documented. However, the history of sport and life of black or previously disadvantaged South Africans is still on the periphery compared to that of their white compatriots. This paper describes the life and sporting experiences, mainly rugby and to a lesser degree cricket, of AmaXhosa or Xhosa people. The term "AmaXhosa" is used reservedly to describe the people central to this research, which are predominantly located in the present day Eastern Cape. A semi-structured questionnaire was administered to 35 former black rugby and cricket "provincial and national" players from the early East London locations and the Border region of the Eastern Cape. The former, was so designed, to offer the respondents an opportunity to comment on other relevant issue(s) not raised during the interview sessions. Documents from both primary and secondary sources, i.e., those privately held (personal documents such as letters and club brochures) and those in the public domain (the official and/or government documents; the vernacular newspapers and the regional and national newspapers; academic articles and books) were sampled and analysed. Thematic content analysis was carried out on the semi-structured questionnaires. This paper discusses diverse issues on sport and society, specifically the origins, diffusion and development of black rugby and cricket, in the context of racial division and; the difficulties and ambiguities of uniting sport in South Africa. Further, issues such as the role of schools, churches, migrant labour, class and gender, in the diffusion and development of rugby and cricket, in the Cape societies; the relationship between sport, politics and life under colonialism and apartheid; the emergence of non-racial sport in South Africa and prominent sportspersons' influence and contribution thereof, are discussed. The data gathered was utilised to critique a section of South African society and sport in the context of AmaXhosa's sporting or cultural practices and preferences between 1894 and 1994. The reported findings are an attempt at illuminating and improving the understanding of this population's life and thus build on the existing South Africa's sport historiography. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between gender and parental socioeconomic status (SES) in the motivational orientation of university athletes. Motivational orientations were reasons for specializing in specific sport and motives for continued participation and SES was described based on parental education and occupation. Structured questionnaires were administered to 674 players drawn from 21 universities, which participated in the 3rdKenya Inter-University Championships held from 17-21 December 2011 in Nairobi, Kenya. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and Chi-square. Results indicated that the university athletes had late entry into sports, 90.1% joined sport due to enjoyment and their continued participation was due to success (92.8%). Results showed that in contrast to parental SES (p<0.05), gender did not influence the athletes' motives for continued participation in sport. The results are discussed in the light of the need for university sports administrators and coaches to design and implement talent identification and development programmes. The need to take stock of the athletes' motives for entry and continued participation in sport is discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of the present study was to evaluate the implementation of sunshine sports in secondary schools of Tianjin, China. A total of 450 physical education (PE) teachers in 34 secondary schools drawn from six districts in Tianjin participated in the study. A standardized questionnaire was used to obtain information regarding time allocation, extracurricular activities, teacher qualifications and facilities. The results showed that in 64.71% of the secondary schools the time allocation for physical activity fell short of the recommended 60 minutes per day for moderate to vigorous physical activity. However, when the number of weekly PE classes was calculated across the schools, the results showed that 67.65% of the secondary schools in Tianjin met the official requirement for teaching sunshine sports, except during examination period in which 80% of PE classes were substituted by other 'academic' lessons. A total of 75 teachers (60%) were not qualified to teach PE and 62% of the secondary schools had inadequate PE facilities and equipment. It was concluded that most secondary schools in Tianjin did not meet the minimum guidelines on sunshine sports recommended by the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party. Deficiencies in physical activity time allocation, insufficient qualified PE teachers and inadequacies in facilities and equipment are considered significant barriers to providing opportunities for developing sunshine sports in the PE curriculum. It is therefore imperative that attention should be given to development of sunshine sports in Tianjin schools. Long-term strategies for developing sunshine sports to enhance high quality PE in prominent secondary schools are recommended. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Psychological skills related to positional play are evident in sport. It is believed that specific demands associated with playing position or role within a team sport require a unique set of psychological skills. This study examined the relationship between psychological skills and specialised role amongst 127 South African cricket players. The subjects were divided into 4 primary role groupings namely batsman (n=30), bowler (n=32), all-rounder (n=61) and wicket keeper (n=4). The wicket keeper group's results were excluded from the analysis due to an underrepresentation of wicketkeepers in the sample. Psychological skills were assessed by means of the Athletic Coping Skills Inventory-28 (Smith et al., 1995) and Bull's Mental Skills Questionnaire (Bull et al., 1996). One-way analysis of variance (one-way ANOVA) indicated no significant differences between the psychological skills of the various role groupings. However, there were tendencies for all-rounders to be more psychologically skilled than bowlers and batsmen. It was concluded that there is no distinctive psychological profile for classifying cricket players into performing specialised roles in the sport. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article analyses studies which were conducted for doctor of philosophy degrees in the department of Physical and Health education and Exercise Science at the Kenyatta University with a view of appraising their impact and possible contribution towards sports development in Kenya. Twelve (12) studies were reviewed over the 25-year period which cut across a broad spectrum of areas of study in Physical Education and Sport ranging from Anthropology and Sports History, Didactics, Sports Administration, Outdoor Education, Social-Psychology of Sports, fitness and health-related aspects. Soccer, athletics and volleyball were predominantly investigated in the studies. In most of the studies the findings were descriptive in nature and have limited applications needed to address strategic priorities of sports development in Kenya. The department need to encourage studies which are relevant to the numerous and diverse areas in sports in Kenya and most aptly relevance to the Kenya population. Implications of the findings for post-graduate Physical Education curriculum review are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The publication of the Surgeon General's Report (1996) on Physical Activity and Health by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services recommended a paradigm shift during the 21st Century from prescribing exercise for fitness, to promoting physical activity and leisure education as an active approach to good health and health promotion. Active approach to health promotion includes meaningful changes in people's lifestyles, improving eating and drinking habits, avoiding the use of drugs and other poisonous substances and pursuing the wise use of leisure time, and sustainable and suitable enjoyable physical activity. Individuals need physical movement as a basic condition of life in order to achieve balance, good health and vitality. This becomes important in view of present-day lifestyles which are heavily influenced by physical inactivity, urbanisation, technological development and innovations and sedentariness. This concept paper discusses the challenges and risks today's youth face as a result of lifestyles they adopt and the strategies that could be used to increase youth participation in physical activity through the promotion of active forms of leisure and recreation. The article emphasises the valuable influence of leisure education in the attainment of optimum health and the relationship between participation in physically active youth lifestyles and the physical, psychological and social health of youth. Suggested strategies include policy formulation, development and implementation, advocacy and education, promotion campaigns, multisectoral collaboration, conducive environment to support the active leisure, setting and monitoring realisable and achievable goals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aging results in a natural loss of flexibility, which is especially essential in the maintenance of functional abilities of the aged to perform activities of daily living. Resistance training may provide a stimulus for flexibility, in addition to its extensive health benefits, since its action is through a full range of motion. The purpose of this study was to compare the effects of a home- and gymnasium-based resistance training programme on flexibility in the elderly. Forty-nine inactive elderly males and females aged 55 to 85 years were assigned to either an eight-week, three times weekly home- (HB) (n=25) or a gymnasium-based (GB) (n=24) resistance training programme at a rating of perceived exertion of 11 to 12 (very mild discomfort). Both groups were equally effective at significantly (p<0.05) increasing right shoulder flexion, right shoulder extension, left and right internal rotation, left and right external rotation, and left and right hip flexion. This study demonstrates that a home- or gymnasium-based programme can improve flexibility and allow the elderly to maintain functional ability and lead independent lives. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: The waist-to-stature ratio (WSR) is newly developed index, proposed to be of greater value as a simple anthropometric indicator, for predicting abdominal obesity and related cardiovascular co-morbidities in adults and children. This study examined age and gender differences in waist-to-stature (WSR) as measure of centripetal fat patterning in a sample of children in Pretoria, South Africa. Methodology: A cross-sectional study of 1136 schoolchildren (548 boys and 588 girls) aged 9-13 (11.2 ± 1.3) years were studied. Anthropometric measurements included body mass, stature and waist circumference. WSR was calculated by dividing waist circumference (in cm) by stature (in cm). Data were analysed using means and standard deviation. The parametric t-test was applied to examine sexual dimorphism in fat patterning among the children. The proportion of children with a WSR < 0.50 was calculated for each age group. Statistical significance was set at p < 0.05. Results: The mean value of WSR was 0.43 ± 0.06 (95% CI 0.42-0.43), with the girls having significantly (p = 0.002; p < 0.05) higher mean WSR (0.44 ± 0.06; 95% CI 0.43-0.44), compared to the boys (0.42 ± 0.06; 95% CI 0.42-0.43). WSR showed inconsistent results in both sexes and across age groups. Girls had significantly (p = 0.005) higher mean values of WSR at ages nine,11, and 12. A total of 155 children (13.6%) had central obesity as measured by WSR. The proportion of boys with a WSR > 0.5 was 47 (8.6%), while girls were 108 (18.4%). The prevalence of central obesity (WSR > 0.5) was found at all age and sex categories with the highest prevalence rate found at age 13 in both sexes. Conclusions: The fact that WSR > 0.5 (13.6%) was found in these children, even among the youngest, is a cause for concern since obesity-related problems are likely to be present among the children. The need to design and implement appropriate intervention strategies at school and community levels is evident. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A cooperation project on school physical education (PE) was established between the Tshwane University of Technology, Pretoria, South Africa. and the University of Gothenburg, Sweden. The project was funded as part of the international cooperation agreement between South Africa and Sweden. The aim of the project was to investigate discrepancies between intended subscription and actual provision for PE/Life Orientation (LO) in Swedish and South African schools. Presented in this paper are results of the pilot study on the comparative research project which focused on PE as a tool for developing health and social skills among Swedish and South African school children. A major objective of the project was to investigate how provision for PE is defined in formal school settings in both countries. To answer the question we constructed a 23- item questionnaire measuring PE provision and children's attitudes towards the subject in primary and lower secondary schools. A questionnaire was constructed utilizing a) participant observations of lessons in Sweden and South Africa, b) semi-structured interviews with school principals and PE teachers in both countries, and c) analyses of policy documents in each country. The pilot instrument consisted of four batteries of questions: a) Health promotion (8 items), b) Social development (8 items), c) Personal development (10 items), and d) Physical development and movement (6 items). The questionnaire was developed in two almost identical versions and was completed by primary school pupils in South Africa (n = 105) and Sweden (n = 42). In order to improve the reliability and the construct validity of the questionnaire we modified the pilot versions of the questionnaire eliminating poorly fit items using various statistical techniques. Pupils' answers to the questionnaire were analyzed mainly through structural equation modeling techniques (AMOS). This technique facilitates the simultaneous analysis of the robustness of the whole instrument and the test of each battery of questions. The statistical analyses were aimed at designing a questionnaire with very good fit indices for Swedish and South African contexts. Results yielded substantial Cronbach's a: whole instrument (α=.84); Health promotion (α=60), Social development (α=60), Personal development (α=79), Physical development (α=76), which showed acceptable reliability estimates for the questionnaire subscales. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The influence of perceived somatotype on stereotypes of behavior associated with body build was investigated among 160 male and 140 female Nigerian children in secondary school. In both groups, the perception of subjects' own physiques and discrepancy between their perceived and preferred physiques significantly explained the variance in the character trait scores attributed to body types. In general, the subjects attributed positive character traits to their perceived somatotypes and undesirable traits to the physiques with which they were dissatisfied. Thus, the perception of somatotype and discrepancy between perceived and preferred physique could significantly differentiate the character traits attributed to body build among male and female children. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Information about several papers discussed at the Sixth Biennial Conference on the role of physical education and sports in attaining the millennium goals and the need for effective teaching of physical education in schools is presented. The Africa Association for Health, Physical Education, Recreation, Sports and Dance organized the conference. The conference featured 120 delegates from the institute of sport sciences in 9 countries including, India, Nigeria, and South Africa.