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The article provides an assessment of innovation activity state in logistics companies in the second half of 2022 and 2023 as well as the potential consequences of low level of investment in innovation. The relevance of the article is determined by the objective features of the development of the logistics industry in the Russian Federation, primarily in the context of international import and export trade under the conditions of sanctions restrictions as well as increased competition of logistics companies on the market and competitive pressure from international logistics companies which enter the Russian market. The purpose of the study is to assess the characteristics of the functioning of the logistics industry and the prospects for its development, which can have a significant impact on the international movement of goods. An assessment is made of companies’ strategies to maintain their market share, increasе this share through interaction with the labour market as well as tо use additional tools for obtaining and maintaining a market advantage. A conclusion is drawn about the influence of a number of factor criteria on the further development of the industry and those resources associated with investments in innovation that the company’s owners have for the future development of their business.

Environmental regulations restricting the use of a natural resource or species often have unintended consequences. One example is prohibitions on the international trade in culturally important endangered wildlife. Trade restrictions may artificially increase scarcity and, consequently, value. In China, international trade restrictions may trigger bouts of speculative investment that have the opposite effect of the restrictions' intent. We examined how China's speculative economy and cultural history have together led to unintended consequences when regulating wildlife trade. In China, wildlife markets occupy a legal gray area that can make regulations ineffectual or even counterproductive. In extreme cases, prohibiting trade can provoke market booms. Further unintended consequences include potential cultural backlash. In China and across the Global South, international trade restrictions are sometimes considered a continuation of a longstanding history of Western intervention and thus may not be enforced as strongly or may generate resentment. This pushback has contributed to rising calls to decolonialize conservation and may lead to growing alliances between China and other Global South countries when negotiating international wildlife trade restrictions in the future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Afghanistan and most developing, landlocked countries must prioritize regional diplomacy and make strategic alliances to eliminate economic difficulties and create opportunities for trade, partnerships, and markets to encourage further integration. This research aims to identify workable value chains for integration under the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) and evaluate their suitability by considering their potential volume. This research investigates how BRI decreases trade restrictions and increases connectivity through quantitative techniques and a survey research approach. The research results demonstrate that BRI can majorly impact Afghanistan's economic situation, particularly with trade volume, trade restrictions, diplomacy, negotiations, and implementation of such kinds of projects. The Initiative has the potential to significantly reduce trade restrictions, and challenges, and enhance trade connectivity by utilizing significant infrastructure investments and investment in Afghanistan. However, security risks and political concerns prevent the BRI from achieving maximum connectivity in this country. This study contributes to thoughtful strategic alliances such as BRI, which can facilitate Afghanistan's trade connectivity, sustainable development, and economic integration by giving stakeholders and policymakers useful data to accomplish opportunities and know obstacles. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines the effects of exchange and capital restrictions on trade and compares them with those associated with trade restrictions. Our main result is that capital account restrictions have large and statistically significant effects on trade flows. Such effects are smaller than those from trade restrictions, however. The effects of exchange and capital restrictions are larger for trade in goods, especially for agriculture and manufacturing, and smaller for trade in services. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Aflatoxins are secondary metabolites, produced by some fungal species of the genus Aspergillus, posing health and economic implications throughout the world. Developing countries in Asia usually have tropical conditions and grow crops susceptible to aflatoxin proliferation. Aflatoxin proliferation is more frequent in tropical regions due to optimal climate conditions required for their production. In general, the developing countries in Asia lack control and regulation strategies, like poor harvesting practices, improper storage and poor transportation conditions resulting in major losses from farm to fork level. A number of aflatoxin positive cases above safe limits have been reported in Asia in various commodities being consumed by the local population. This not only exposes to health issues like growth impairment, immunosuppression, hepatic disorders etc. but also result in heavy economic losses due to trade restrictions. However, rigorous aflatoxin standards mean that many nations would export their best quality food and keep contaminated food domestically, resulting in higher aflatoxin exposure in low or middle-income nations, where hepatitis prevalence is high. Aflatoxin control is needed to protect the Asian population from the risks of aflatoxins and to ensure good quality safe availability of commodities throughout the world by trade. In recent years a number of bioproducts have been introduced successfully worldwide that are safe, efficient and ecofriendly. Such initiatives may be taken in Asia as well to protect our food and feed commodities from aflatoxin contamination.

The Andean Court of Justice (ACJ) considered Article 34 Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU) as a supplementary source of law to interpret the principle of free movement of goods in the Andean Community (CAN). The Cartagena Agreement does not provide for the concept of measure of equivalent effect to quantitative restrictions. The objective of this article is to analyze the implications of employing the TFEU as a supplementary source of law and the regulatory capacity of the Member States of the CAN. It is argued that considering the TFEU as a supplementary source of law to interpret the principle of free movement of goods in the CAN facilitated the extensive interpretation of the Cartagena Agreement with the risk of reducing state regulatory capacity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

International trade is currently under fire from many sides. Protectionist trade policies are on the rise, putting an end to the decade‐long March of free trade. Making sense of the daily headlines and having an informed opinion on your own has rarely been more important than it is now. Our work aims to explain the driving forces behind international trade, its history, how it shaped the world, its economic models, issues ranging from job losses to the environment and why buying local often makes no sense. We summarize the most important academic literature on these topics in a non‐technical, educational manner. If the reader feels enabled to form their own views on the pros and cons of international trade and that they can 'talk the talk', our effort has been fruitful. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We use a general equilibrium trade model to quantify the welfare cost of decoupling from Russia. We find that a doubling of non-tariff barriers imposed by the West on Russian imports and exports of all goods would decrease Russian welfare by 4.8% and would have a relatively small effect on Western welfare. We show that the welfare cost of decoupling is amplified by supply chains and that restrictions on Russian energy, especially oil, matter quantitatively. Finally, we find that welfare losses generated by restrictions actually applied by the West in the aftermath of the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine account for around 80% of those obtained in our decoupling scenario. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper documents the importance of trade in services for global value chain participation in the ASEAN region. Using newly created data on GVCs as well as a new database on the services trade restrictiveness index to connect international trade policies in services to participation in GVCs, we show that restrictions on trade in services are detrimental for backward participation in GVCs and that such restrictions are harmful to ASEAN members when compared to other countries in the data set. Also, we show that services trade restrictions are especially detrimental to ASEAN countries when such backward integration is connected to forward participation, hence, central positions in GVCs. Restrictions on trade in services slow down the upgrading of value chain positions, which calls for policy actions to follow up trade liberalization in industrial products with a new round of lower restrictions on services trade. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study assesses the evolution of earnings across different groups of workers during Russia's 2000–2013 oil boom and amidst the 2014–2015 oil bust and a trade war. Unconditional quantile regressions and growth incidence curves are applied to nine household surveys for 2000–2016 to estimate earnings gaps across urban/rural, farming/non-farming and gender divides at various earnings quantiles. Gaps in pre-fiscal formal labor market earnings and informal non-market home production are assessed, distinguishing the roles of workers' endowments differentials and returns differentials in production markets. Earning gaps are found to be pervasive, with rural and some female-headed households receiving lower returns on their human capital in part because they lack employment opportunities. Rural Russian households face mobility barriers and lack decent employment opportunities, thus lacking incentives for skill investment. Rural households tend to be less educated and face low returns on their various marketable characteristics. Gender gaps were particularly high historically, particularly among lower quantile groups, but have been steadily falling over the past decade. Growth incidence curves reveal that the 2014 shocks affected particularly harshly the farming and urban households, both immediately and over the following years. We conclude that Russia should strengthen its rural assistance programs and lower the mobility and resettlement barriers to improve rural households' access to education and employment.

The article is devoted to revealing the role of import substitution policy in the development of the domestic market. The article examines foreign approaches to the implementation of import substitution. The analysis of the main groups in the commodity structure of Russian imports for the period 2017–2021 is carried out. The results of import substitution of the main commodity groups of imports for the period 2014–2021 are considered. Problems and obstacles in the production of domestic goods are identified. Scenarios for the development of the importsubstituting policy of the state are predicted. The article outlines the priority areas of import substitution policy in Russia.

This study assesses the evolution of earnings across different groups of workers during Russia's 2000–2013 oil boom and amidst the 2014–2015 oil bust and a trade war. Unconditional quantile regressions and growth incidence curves are applied to nine household surveys for 2000–2016 to estimate earnings gaps across urban/rural, farming/non-farming and gender divides at various earnings quantiles. Gaps in pre-fiscal formal labor market earnings and informal non-market home production are assessed, distinguishing the roles of workers' endowments differentials and returns differentials in production markets. Earning gaps are found to be pervasive, with rural and some female-headed households receiving lower returns on their human capital in part because they lack employment opportunities. Rural Russian households face mobility barriers and lack decent employment opportunities, thus lacking incentives for skill investment. Rural households tend to be less educated and face low returns on their various marketable characteristics. Gender gaps were particularly high historically, particularly among lower quantile groups, but have been steadily falling over the past decade. Growth incidence curves reveal that the 2014 shocks affected particularly harshly the farming and urban households, both immediately and over the following years. We conclude that Russia should strengthen its rural assistance programs and lower the mobility and resettlement barriers to improve rural households' access to education and employment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper evaluates the temporal and spatial variability of the use of city public transport resulting from statutory Sunday trading restrictions and the COVID-19 pandemic as exemplified by Łódź, a big city in central Poland. Data on the number of tickets validated in urban public transport vehicles is provided in three forms. The first one presents the number of validations in all vehicles in an hourly distribution, the second one shows the number of validations according to individual tram and bus lines, while the third one gives information on the number of validated tickets assigned to a tram/bus stop within the range of which the validation was made. The outcomes from the conducted research show an increased fluctuation in public transport load on Sundays depending on whether it was possible to conduct all types of commercial activity. This variability is observed to a much lesser extent in the presence of other mobility constraints (the pandemic situation). A spatial shift in mobility towards the periphery and inter-district connections is also observed, which may indicate changes in travel destinations.

The war in the breadbasket of Europe, which spawned at the heels of the once‐in‐a‐lifetime pandemic, sent major cereal prices spiralling upward. The unprecedented sequence of events leading to and including the war has tested the resilience of global commodity markets and the craftsmanship of policymakers. While the circumstances may differ, the disruption of global commodity markets is not exactly uncharted territory, with many examples and experiences from near and distant history. By showcasing anecdotal and empirical evidence from the past, this study puts the current crisis and its consequences in perspective and offers an outlook with a specific focus on low‐ and middle‐income countries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

At the centre of the multi‐dimensional impact of the COVID‐19 pandemic, the shortage of medical supplies in countries with weaker healthcare systems significantly reduced the effectiveness of national and international public health interventions. Using a database of test‐kit trade flows and barriers, we estimate the price responsiveness of test‐kit demand in a global sample of countries. These estimates allow us to investigate the degree to which import tariffs by leading producers could result in a disruption in global supply chains, price increases, and welfare loss. Simulation experiments indicate that the combination of rising demand for test kits and import dependence magnifies the impact of trade barriers on consumer welfare and this impact is more profound for developing countries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The relevance of the article is determined by the study of scientific works on the impact of the foreign trade component on economic growth, since as of now the idea of the positive impact of foreign trade and its liberalisation on economic growth prevails. At the same time, discussions on trends in the liberalisation of foreign trade are part of the problem, which is the contradictory impact on the economic development of the free crossborder movement of goods, capital, and labor. The aim of the article is to study trade restrictions in the context of foreign trade liberalisation. Achieving this goal is based on methods of analysis and synthesis, induction and deduction, that are grounded on an integrated approach. It is noted that at a high level of economic development, economic liberalisation allows increasing the benefits of foreign trade, but the issues related to the opening of domestic markets in the countries of economic periphery remain controversial. The article considers the essence and classification of foreign trade restrictions. The views of scholars of the leading economic schools on the relationship between trade liberalisation and economic growth are characterised. It is determined that the main trends in the liberalisation of foreign trade are: expanding the scope of regulatory measures by both national governments and global trade institutions; coordination and intensification of international cooperation in the areas of multilateral liberalisation of foreign trade; the growth of non-tariff restrictions on the way of the international trade development. The results of the study allow deepening the understanding of the peculiarities of ensuring national economic interests in the conditions of dynamisation of foreign trade

The International Health Regulations (IHR), of which the World Health Organization is custodian, govern how countries collectively promote global health security, including prevention, detection, and response to global health emergencies such as the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic. Countries are permitted to exercise their sovereignty in taking additional health measures to respond to such emergencies if these measures adhere to Article 43 of this legally binding instrument. Overbroad measures taken during recent public health emergencies of international concern, however, reveal that the provision remains inadequately understood. A shared understanding of the measures legally permitted by Article 43 is a necessary step in ensuring the fulfillment of obligations, and fostering global solidarity and resilience in the face of future pandemics. In this consensus statement, public international law scholars specializing in global health consider the legal meaning of Article 43 using the interpretive framework of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Economic sanctions constrain targets' capacity to maintain essential goods imports from foreign suppliers. This research points out that target states may respond to this adverse effect of sanctions by redirecting the resources invested to secondary goods imports to essential goods imports. In addition, I suggest that the availability of this strategy significantly varies across sanctions instruments. When facing foreign aid sanctions, targets may be able to effectively reallocate their import funding to sustain foreign supply of essential items. However, when they are subject to trade sanctions, such a response is not readily available. In the data analysis with 150 countries from 1974 to 2006, I utilize foodstuffs as a proxy of essential goods and provide evidence that targets under foreign aid sanctions transfer their import funding to maintain adequate amount of food aid. Yet, I find no evidence that targets subject to trade sanctions also respond with the same manner. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

During the COVID‐19 pandemic, countries applied trade restrictions to insulate their domestic markets from the world market. However, these trade policies could have amplified international market price fluctuations. This paper explores the effects of trade restrictions on international agricultural price volatility. A theoretical model is developed to quantify how trade policies amplify the initial shock. Using panel data covering 71 countries from January 2020 to July 2021, we examine empirically the effects of trade policies on world agricultural price volatility. The results show that trade distortions further induced volatility of world agricultural prices by around 22 percent during the COVID‐19 pandemic. The multiplier effects are much more substantial in agricultural exporting countries than in importing countries. Large countries like China and the US could make significant contributions to stabilizing world prices by limiting the extent of unilateral trade policy interventions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Ekonomika APK is the property of Economy of Argo-Industrial Complex and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

"The new coronavirus (Covid-19), which spread almost the entire world, adversely affected many sectors, both internationally and 30 locally. Households’ panic purchase have rocketed the demand for some food items in the early days. Besides, food safety 31 concerns have increased. This research aimed to uncover how the public perceived the impact of Covid-19 on the agriculture and 32 food sector. The online survey was conducted, and the data from 428 participants were analysed using the SPSS (v.23) program. 33 The third of respondents (30.8%) believed the outbreak would last between six months to one year, during which time food 34 shortages will occur (32.5%). While 27.4% of the respondents reported that they stockpiled food, 44.8% reported that if the 35 outbreak continued, they would stock up on food. Participants were concerned that if planting cannot be done, food shortages will 36 occur (74.6%), basic foodstuffs cannot be produced (67.8%), food imports (69.4%) and exports (74.6%) will be adversely 37 affected by the outbreak. The research found that if farming disturbed, food prices would increase (82.3%) and the government 38 should include agriculture-supporting measures (85%) in its economic measures."

With Article 6.2, the Paris Agreement offers its parties the possibility to engage in cooperative approaches to import mitigation outcomes that have been generated on the territory of another party and use these international transferred mitigation outcomes (ITMOs) for compliance purposes. While this possibility seems to pave the way to more—and presumably new forms of—climate cooperation outside the UN climate regime, this paper asks whether Article 6.2 is also likely to spark disagreement among states. It is suggested that it bears as much a potential to generate cooperation as to generate conflict. To illustrate that point, the paper explains how Article 6.2 could lead to conflict between developed and developing states over the legality of unilateral restrictions on the admittance of ITMOs and discusses what such conflict may look like, as well as its possible legal and political implications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

From the mid-1990s to 2017, China was a major importer of recyclable waste, including plastic waste, e-waste, wastepaper, and copper scrap. However, after experiencing pollution from the recycling process and improper disposal of imported waste, at the end of 2017, China prohibited the import of certain types of waste, including household plastic waste and waste fiber. Consequently, some types of recyclable waste were rerouted to Southeast Asia. However, after receiving contaminated recyclable waste imports, Southeast Asian countries also tightened import restrictions on recyclable waste. These restrictions hindered the international recycling initiatives of certain manufacturers, which were model cases of the voluntary application of extended producer responsibility. When producers initiate recycling programs, they must compete with other recyclers to secure waste supplies and compete with other producers of the same kind. To compete in the waste and product markets, they must minimize recycling cost. To do so, some producers established international recycling systems; however, trade restrictions in some countries are forcing them to stop these programs. This paper reviews the impact of recyclable waste trade restrictions on recycling activities and producer-organized international recycling systems and argues that there is a need for an appropriate trade policy to facilitate environmentally sound recycling. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research examines the relationship between economic sanctions and income inequality of sanctioned states. Economic sanctions have a discernible effect on target income inequality. I argue that such an effect significantly varies across sanctions instruments and economic conditions of sanctioned countries. Data analysis for 152 countries from 1974 to 2011 shows that import sanctions increase inequality of labor-abundant targets, but such an effect disappears in labor-scarce targets, whereas the findings provide no reliable evidence for the effect of export sanctions. The results also suggest that foreign aid sanctions reduce the inequality of targets that are significantly dependent on foreign assistance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cyber risk could underlie the next financial crisis. Increasing trade policies on cross-border financial services have been implemented to manage cybersecurity concerns. Simply complying with the fragmented policies can cause unintended consequences for businesses and can even result in new cyber threats. This study develops a taxonomy to understand the effect of trade policies for cyber-securing the cross-border financial services. The analysis reveals that a Financial Cybersecurity Action Task Force, where both public and private sectors are involved, is necessary to create and promote cyber norms to balance innovation and systematic cyber risk within cross-border financial systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Research Papers of the Wroclaw University of Economics / Prace Naukowe Uniwersytetu Ekonomicznego we Wroclawiu is the property of Uniwersytet Ekonomiczny we Wroclawiu and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

We provide a unified discussion of the issues that confront negotiators of the next international climate agreement. We offer a novel proposal that entitles countries to discharge their treaty obligations by paying a “fine”. This escape clause provides cost insurance, simplifies the problem of enforcing compliance, and increases incentives to participate in the agreement. We explain why developed country obligations should rely on a cap and trade commitment rather than carbon taxes. A Central Bank maintains stability of carbon prices by defending a price ceiling and floor. An so-called intensity target is not a good alternative to an emissions cap. Modest trade restrictions, consistent with WTO law, will form an important part of the next agreement. Developed and developing countries have differentiated responsibilities. Developing countries do not adopt binding targets at the next round of negotiations, but they accept the principle of binding targets in the subsequent agreement, beginning in the early 2020s. Developed country participation relies on a reformed CDM and sectoral agreements that are financed by the sale of emissions permits.

The renewable energy policies of many countries have actively endorsed Local/Domestic Content Requirements (LCR/DCR) on the assertion of providing protection to their niche technology markets. However, potential usefulness and legality of local content requirements (LCRs) are regularly contested on the premise of their trade distorting impacts and lower allocative efficiencies. The initial Indian solar policy also provided differentiated incentives for ground mounted grid connected solar deployments using domestically manufactured Crystalline-Silicon (C-Si) panels (DCR) over the imported ones. This study maps socio economic impacts of the two categories of deployment using Input Output (IO) analysis. The methodology introduces solar generation as a new production activity into Indian economy. An independent solar I-O block is constructed and integrated as a new sector in 35x35 national input output table (2011) obtained from world input output databases (WIOD). The analysis involves tracking Inter industry transactions involved in installing a unit of grid connected ground mounted photovoltaic solar power capacity in India. Both solar blocks compile data at purchasers' price for PV module, mounting structure, power conditioning unit, construction and preoperative costs of the power plant. Followed by adjustments for existing fiscal elements like applicable subsidies, VAT, excise duty and incurred transportation costs. The DCR block is differentiated by dissociation of solar panel manufacturing Industry into inputs for manufacturing module, wafer and cells with in the economy while in case of non DCR solar blocks, solar panels feature in the imports column. Direct and indirect impacts in terms of output, employment and income generation are estimated followed by distributive efficiencies of the sectoral wage generation associated with the two categories of deployment. The results reveal that direct and indirect output (GDP generation) of DCR deployments is 24.74% higher than of open category projects. The DCR projects also produce 36.64% more economy wide employment when compared to open category projects. Further, distributive efficiencies associated with quality of employment generated favors DCR deployments in India. This study thus provides initial evidence and policy guidance on usefulness of domestic content requirement in promoting regional green growth for the growing solar sector in India. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We employ a global vector autoregression (GVAR) model to analyze international spillover effects of US trade restrictions, modeled as a reduction of US imports. Our sample consists of the US and 25 countries in the rest of the world, grouped into larger regions comprising European nations, non-European industrial countries and emerging economies. We find US trade restrictions to reduce trade volumes and income levels in the rest of the world as well as in the US. The trade balance deteriorates across all world regions except in the US, where it is unaffected by the trade restrictions. We also model the effects of a trade war in which the rest of the world responds in equal measure to the trade restrictions imposed by the US. We again find that export and import activity recedes both in the US and in the rest of the world, although the resulting effects are now strongest in the short run. The trade balance improves in the rest of the world but deteriorates in the US. In terms of the GDP response, the rest of the world is initially much harder hit by the imposition of the retaliatory trade measure than is the US. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Motivated by various trade restrictions in real-life object allocation problems, we introduce an object allocation with a particular class of trade restrictions model. The set of matchings that can occur through a market-like process under such restrictions is defined, and each such matching is called feasible. We then introduce a class of mechanisms, which we refer to as "Restricted Trading Cycles" (RTC). Any RTC mechanism is feasible, constrained efficient, and respects endowments. An axiomatic characterization of RTC is obtained, with feasibility, constrained efficiency, and a new property that we call hierarchically mutual best. In terms of strategic issues, feasibility, constrained efficiency, and respecting endowments together turns out to be incompatible with strategy-proofness. This in particular implies that no RTC mechanism is strategy-proof. Lastly, we consider a probabilistically restricted trading cycles (PRTC) mechanism, which is obtained by introducing a certain randomness to the RTC class. While PRTC continues to be manipulable, compared to RTC, it is more robust to truncations and reshufflings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

On 29 May 2014, during the meeting of Supreme Eurasian Economic Council, the Presidents of Russia, Belarus and Kazakhstan signed the Treaty on the Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU). Presently, the EAEU consists of the Russian Federation, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Armenia and the Kyrgyz Republic. Nonetheless, the EAEU is lobbying for an ambitious plan of enlargement and is aiming to expand across the entire Eurasian region. The EAEU claims to be the second union after the European Union with the deepest integration aspirations, containing similar institutions and decisionmaking approaches. This article argues that there are a number of challenges for the effective functioning of EAEU and that its Member States are not yet fully committed to liberalization in practice, contrary to the aspirations they are advocating. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

From December 2014 to June 2015, U.S. poultry was affected by highly pathogenic avian influenza that led to destruction of 48 million birds and losses in international trade. During the event, 45 countries placed trade restrictions on U.S. poultry exports, varying from regionalized to national poultry restrictions. Using a gravity model of trade, the effects on quantity traded is estimated for poultry exports at the aggregated and disaggregated commodity level to understand product flows during an event. Results indicate U.S. poultry exports benefit from countries willing to apply limited trade restrictions, and the trade impact varies across disaggregated commodities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An exploration of South Africa’s changing position in the World Trade Network 1948–1994. The World Trade Network (WTN) has been studied as a network in numerous studies. However, countries with smaller economies are usually neglected in discussions of the WTN, and hence this article investigates the changing position of a much smaller country, South Africa, under different leaders from 1948 to 1994. It is shown, in particular, how the widespread sanctions incurred under the leadership of P.W. Botha (1978–1989) had a profound effect on South Africa’s position in the WTN. Using degree, closeness and betweenness centralities, as well as the country’s rankings on these centrality measures, it is shown that South Africa started as a peripheral country while still a colony of Britain, moved closer to the core of the WTN under H.F. Verwoerd and B.J. Vorster, but then sanctions pushed South Africa to the periphery under P.W. Botha, before South Africa again moved closer to the core during F.W. de Klerk’s presidency. Die Wêreldhandelnetwerk is in verskeie studies as ’n netwerk bestudeer, maar lande met kleiner ekonomieë word gewoonlik in die besprekings van die Wêreldhandelnetwerk verwaarloos. Daarom ondersoek hierdie artikel die veranderende posisie van ’n veel kleiner land, Suid-Afrika, onder verskillende leiers van 1948 tot 1994. Daar word veral gewys hoe die wydverspreide sanksies wat ingestel is tydens die bewind van P.W. Botha (1978–1989) ’n groot invloed op Suid-Afrika se posisie in die WTN gehad het. Deur middel van graad-, nabyheid- en tussenliggingsentraliteit, sowel as die land se ranglys ten opsigte van hierdie sentraliteitaanduiders, word aangetoon dat Suid-Afrika as ‘n randland begin het, terwyl dit nog ‘n kolonie van Brittanje was, nader aan die kern van die Wêreldhandelnetwerk onder H.F. Verwoerd en B.J. Vorster beweeg het, maar toe het sanksies Suid-Afrika onder P.W. Botha na die periferie gedruk, voordat Suid-Afrika weer tydens die F.W. de Klerk se presidentskap nader aan die kern beweeg het.