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For decades, multiple anthropogenic stressors have threatened the Galápagos Islands. Widespread marine pollution such as oil spills, persistent organic pollutants, metals, and ocean plastic pollution has been linked to concerning changes in the ecophysiology and health of Galápagos species. Simultaneously, illegal, unreported, and unregulated fishing are reshaping the composition and structure of endemic and native Galápagos pelagic communities. In this novel review, we discuss the impact of anthropogenic pollutants and their associated ecotoxicological implications for Galápagos species in the face of climate change stressors. We emphasize the importance of considering fishing pressure and marine pollution, in combination with climate-change impacts, when assessing the evolutionary fitness of species inhabiting the Galápagos. For example, the survival of endemic marine iguanas has been negatively affected by organic hydrocarbons introduced via oil spills, and endangered Galápagos sea lions exhibit detectable concentrations of DDT, triggering potential feminization effects and compromising the species' survival. During periods of ocean warming (El Niño events) when endemic species undergo nutritional stress, climate change may increase the vulnerability of these species to the impacts of pollutants, resulting in the species reaching its population tipping point. Marine plastics are emerging as a deleterious and widespread threat to endemic species. The Galápagos is treasured for its historical significance and its unparalleled living laboratory and display of evolutionary processes; however, this unique and iconic paradise will remain in jeopardy until multidisciplinary and comprehensive preventative management plans are put in place to mitigate and eliminate the effects of anthropogenic stressors facing the islands today. We present a critical analysis and synthesis of anthropogenic stressors with some progress from local and international institutional efforts and call to action more precautionary measures along with new management philosophies focused on understanding the processes of change through research to champion the conservation of the Galápagos. Integr Environ Assess Manag 2022;00:1-26. © 2022 SETAC.

Microplastics are extremely small mixed shaped plastic debris in the environment. These plastics are manufactured (primary microplastics) or formed from the breakdown of larger plastics once they enter the terrestrial, freshwater and marine environments (secondary microplastics). Over time, a combination of physical, photochemical and biological processes can reduce the structural integrity of plastic debris to produce microplastics and even further to produce nanoplastics. NMPs have been detected in both the aquatic and terrestrial environments and can be easily spread by water, soil and air and can be ingested by a wide range of organisms. For example, NMPs have been found in the guts of fish and bivalve shellfish. Microplastics have also been detected in food and in human faeces. Therefore, NMPs are not only found in the environment, but they may contaminate the food supply chain and be ingested by consumers. There is evidence suggesting that microorganisms are able to colonise the surfaces of microplastics and aggregates of nanoplastics. However, the risk to consumers posed by NMPs colonised with microorganisms (including those that are AMR) which enter the food supply chain is currently unknown.

Plastic pollution continues to worsen globally in volume and complexity. The complexity in plastic production, use and disposal is significant, highlighting the importance of clear communication to consumers. Yet despite this, poor plastic labelling is clear, evident from poor waste management metrics even in the most equipped countries. Plastic labelling must change to contribute to a holistic intervention on global plastic mismanagement. Discussion on this topic leads to three key recommendations: 1. An accurate and clear “sustainability scale” to empower consumers to make decisions informed by environmental and human health implications; 2. Directions for appropriate disposal action in the region of purchase; 3. A comprehensive list of plastic composition, including additives.

There is an increasing concern about the impacts of microplastic pollution in the terrestrial environment. Identifying sources, pathways and sinks of terrestrial microplastics is crucial to determining environmental exposure and applying efficient intervention measures. In the UK alone, 3.5 million tonnes (wet weight) of biosolids from the wastewater industry are recycled each year to agricultural land, raising the possibility that recycling of biosolids could be a significant source of microplastic pollution to the terrestrial environment. To address this issue, the present study determined the presence of microplastics from across the whole sludge treatment stream from one exemplar wastewater treatment works in the UK. Both sewage sludge (a liquid by-product produced from the wastewater treatment processes) and biosolids (sewage sludge that has undergone a treatment process) were examined as a source of microplastics to the terrestrial environment. Microplastics were detected in all samples taken from across the treatment process with concentrations ranging from 37.7-286.5 number of microplastics/g of sludge (dry weight). The microplastic load in the final biosolid products produced at the site ranged from 37.7-97.2 number of microplastics/g of sludge (dry weight). The wastewater treatment works in this study produces 900 tonnes of anaerobically digested sludge cake and 690 tonnes of lime stabilised cake per month. Based on the results from this study, the application of these biosolids to agricultural land as fertilisers can potentially release 1.61 × 10

As anthropogenic damage to the environment continues worldwide, effective science communication has never been more important. Despite this there are numerous barriers between traditional science communication (e.g. journal articles to news media) and the goal of encouraging more sustainable behaviours. Connections between public groups, science communicators and the environment, are all key to overcome barriers in intergroup communication. It is vital science communication adapts with transdisciplinary approaches to become more effective in its purpose. As such training of environmental science communicators must change. This endeavour will be supported by the enrichment of academic institutions through becoming more active in expediting cooperation between STEM (science, technology, engineering and maths) and HASS (humanities, arts and social science) disciplines. Modern dissemination of misinformation must be tackled with holistic approaches to bridge outgroups and enable the formation of trust.

Climate change and marine pollution are intertwined in the Galapagos’ living laboratory, where unabated anthropogenic pollution is reshaping evolution in the Anthropocene.

The biological fate of nanoparticles (NPs) taken up by organisms from their environment is a crucial issue for assessing ecological hazard. Despite its importance, it has scarcely been addressed due to the technical difficulties of doing so in whole organism

Galloway and Lewis discuss marine microplastics and their devastating effects on ocean ecosystems.

This study reviews the toxic effects of organophosphate (OP) pesticides on the immune systems and immune functions of invertebrates, fish, and higher vertebrate wildlife. The fundamental features and mechanisms of OP-induced immunotoxicity are illustrated with reference to parathion, chlorpyrifos, malathion, and diazinon. Immunotoxicity may be direct via inhibition of serine hydrolases or esterases in components of the immune system, through oxidative damage to immune organs, or by modulation of signal transduction pathways controlling immune functions. Indirect effects include modulation by the nervous system, or chronic effects of altered metabolism/nutrition on immune organs. Immunotoxicities are varied and include pathology of immune organs, and decreased humoral and/or cell mediated immunity. Altered non-specific immunity, decreased host resistance, hypersensitivity and autoimmunity are also features of immunotoxicity; although not all of these have been conclusively demonstrated in terms of pollutant exposure and immunotoxic effects in wildlife within individual experiments. Immunotoxicological biomarkers and biological monitoring tools are urgently needed to assess the extent of immunotoxicity in wildlife. Selection of universal biomarkers is hampered by the physiological diversity of immune systems in animals. However, by drawing on evidence from human epidemiology and tiered approaches in mammalian immunotoxicity evaluation, a selection of generic biomarkers of immunotoxicity in animals is suggested. Priorities for future research are also identified.