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International audience; The digestion of lipids in the human body has several health and nutritional implications. Lipid digestion is an interfacial phenomenon meaning that water-soluble lipases need to first adsorb to the oil–water interface before enzymatic conversions can start. The digestion of lipids mainly occurs on colloidal structures dispersed in water, such as oil-in-water (o/w) emulsions, which can be designed during food formulation/processing or structured during digestion. From a food design perspective, different in vitro studies have demonstrated that the kinetics of lipid digestion can be influenced by emulsion properties. However, most of these studies have been performed with pancreatic enzymes to simulate lipolysis in the small intestine. Only few studies have dealt with lipid digestion in the gastric phase and its subsequent impact on intestinal lipolysis. In this aspect, this review compiles information on the physiological aspects of gastric lipid digestion. In addition, it deals with colloidal and interfacial aspects starting from emulsion design factors and how they evolve during in vitro digestion. Finally, molecular mechanisms describing gastric lipolysis are discussed.

This study investigated the in vitro digestion of purified pea fractions (protein isolate and starch) in sponge cakes when compared to unrefined pea flour and to the whole wheat flour and purified maize starch commonly used in the food industry.

The occurrence of nonenzymaticbrowning in fruit juices during storage is a major quality defect. It negatively affects consumer acceptance and consumption behavior and determines the shelf-life of these products. Although nonenzymatic browning of fruit juices has been the subject of research for a long time, the exact mechanism of the nonenzymatic browning reactions is not yet completely understood. This review paper aims to give an overview of the compounds and reactions playing a key role in nonenzymatic browning during the storage of fruit juices. The chemistry of the plausible reactions and their relative importance will be discussed. To better understand nonenzymatic browning, factors affecting these reactions will be reviewed and several strategies and methods to evaluate color changes and browning will be discussed. Nonenzymatic browning involves three main reactions: ascorbic acid degradation, acid-catalyzed sugar degradation, and Maillard-associated reactions. The most important NEB pathway depends on the matrix. Nonenzymatic browning is affected by many factors, such as the juice composition, the pH, the oxygen availability (packaging material), and the storage conditions. Nonenzymatic browning can thus be considered as a complex problem. To characterize color changes and browning and obtain insight into the browning mechanism of fruit juices, food scientists applied several approaches and strategies. These included the use of model systems with/without the addition of labeled compound and real systems as well as advanced analytical methods. ispartof: COMPREHENSIVE REVIEWS IN FOOD SCIENCE AND FOOD SAFETY vol:20 issue:6 pages:5698-5721 ispartof: location:United States status: published

Volatile compounds in foods can witness the occurrence of (bio)chemical reactions, comprising both enzymatic and non-enzymatic reactions, which can be influenced by processing. This study investigated the effect of different pretreatments aimed at either minimizing, realized by a heat treatment, or inducing, realized by a tissue disruptive treatment, enzymatic reactivities, on the volatile profile of leek. The volatile profiles obtained were then linked to possible (bio)chemical reactions that could have occurred during the treatments. The study showed that different pretreatments led to markedly different volatile profiles, characterized by different (abundances of) volatile compounds. Partial and extensive tissue disruption was achieved by pulsed electric fields at low electric field strength and mixing, respectively. After these tissue disruptive treatments, the volatile compounds could mainly be related to the occurrence of several enzyme-substrate interactions, including conversions of alk(en)yl cysteine sulfoxides by alliinase and of unsaturated fatty acids by lipoxygenase and hydroperoxide lyase. Thermally-induced reactions were also observed to impact the resultant volatile profile. Present study revealed that targeted (pre)treatment allows to steer (bio)chemical reactions towards specific volatile compounds in leek products. ispartof: Lwt-Food Science And Technology vol:172 status: published

Emulsions stabilized by a mixture of emulsifiers may show a tailored functionality depending on the compatibility of the emulsifiers employed. This was proposed in a previous work dealing with distinct lipolysis kinetics of citrus pectin (CP) and Tween 80 (TW80) based emulsions. CP provided a fast a high extent of gastric lipid hydrolysis, TW80 presented negligible digestion and emulsions stabilized with mixtures presented intermediate lipolysis kinetics. The current research work aimed to investigate the interfacial mechanisms underlying gastric lipolysis to further understand the encountered behavior on a fundamental basis. This was achieved by monitoring the interfacial tension kinetics and measuring the interfacial rheology of interfacial layers during in vitro digestion using a modified pendant drop technique. This allowed the correlation of emulsions in vitro lipolysis kinetics and interfacial phenomena during digestion. Two extremely different interfacial tension kinetics were observed when single layers of CP versus TW80 and intermediate kinetics were observed for the binary interfacial layers, importantly correlating with results obtained with emulsions. These findings are discussed in detail and confirm that competitive adsorption between emulsifiers and lipase (e.g. orogenic displacement) is a key factor determining the lipolysis kinetics of emulsions stabilized by mixed emulsifiers. ispartof: Food Hydrocolloids vol:128 status: published

Pulse seeds are nutritious and sustainable matrices with a high level of intrinsic microstructural complexity. They contain high-quality plant-based protein and substantial amounts of slowly digestible starch and dietary fiber. Starch and protein in pulses are located inside cotyledon cells that survive cooking and subsequent mechanical disintegration, hence preserving natural nutrient bioencapsulation. In this context, several authors have explored a number of techniques to isolate individual cotyledon cells from these seeds, aiming to unveil their digestive and physicochemical properties. In recent years, isolated pulse cotyledon cells are also being highlighted as promising novel ingredients that could improve the nutritional properties of traditionally consumed food products. Even more, they could enable to implement a strategy for increasing pulse intake in populations where these seeds have not been traditionally consumed. This review mainly focuses on the reported digestive, physicochemical, and technofunctional properties of pulse cotyledon cells isolated through different techniques, preceded by a descriptive summary of the nutritional properties, structural organization, and traditional process chain of pulse seeds. It also offers an outlook of research directions to take, based on the identified research gaps. All in all, it is clear that isolation of pulse cotyledon cells using diverse techniques constitutes a promising strategy for the development of pulse-based ingredients where natural bioencapsulation of macronutrients is preserved. However, much more research is needed at the level of ingredient characterization to better understand the effect of starting pulse seed material, isolation technique, and isolation conditions on the nutritional and functional properties of the finished product(s) where the isolated cells are (to be) used.

Nutrients are bio-encapsulated by different structures in plant-based foods, which can behave as digestive barriers upon consumption. These natural barriers can be modified during food processing (e.g. thermal and mechanical treatments). On the one hand, processing can be applied to fully disrupt naturally present barriers, while on the other hand, processing can be used for targeted modifications of these barriers in order to induce-specific digestive responses. In this context, many researchers recently explored different processing techniques and/or intensities to modify the bio-encapsulation level of plant-based foods aiming to enhance and/or modulate nutrient release. In this review, we discuss the potential of processing as a tool to manage digestive barriers in plant-based foods. Two representative case studies on carotenoids (micronutrient) and starch (macronutrient) are included.

The functionality of oil-in-water (o/w) emulsions may be modulated by combining emulsifiers rather than using an individual one. Based on our previous studies, citrus pectin (CP) and tween 80 (TW80) were selected as their emulsions presented different physical stability and in vitro lipolysis kinetics. Hence, our objective was to design and evaluate the in vitro lipolysis kinetics in both the gastric and small intestinal phase of five emulsions containing 5% triolein, 1% CP, and different concentrations of TW80 (0.00625–0.1%). For the initial emulsions, the interfacial load was quantified in terms of CP and TW80 and confirmed that both emulsifiers were present at the interface different ratios as a function of TW80 concentration. These emulsions were subjected to in vitro gastric digestion. Oil droplet characterization (particle size and microstructure) revealed a good to excellent physical stability. The kinetics of gastric lipid digestion were modulated by the TW80 concentration in the initial emulsions: higher magnitude of reaction rate constants (rate at which final extent is reached) and extent of lipolysis for lower TW80 concentrations. In addition, the kinetics of gastric lipase adsorption were also correlated with the lipolysis kinetics. In the small intestinal phase, three emulsions were prepared with 1% CP and 0.00625, 0.025 or 0.1% TW80 and in vitro digested. All emulsions were completely digested but the rate constant depended on the emulsion gastric stability. Overall, this study proposes an interesting strategy to modulate lipolysis kinetics in the gastric phase, but further research is needed to find another one to modulate small intestinal phase kinetics. ispartof: Food Hydrocolloids vol:124 status: published

During adverse postharvest storage of Red haricot beans, the inositol phosphate content, particularly InsP

To better understand the migration properties of hybrid carrageenan from the seaweed tissue during carrageenan extraction, the effect of increasing the seaweed surface area by the mechanical disintegration of gametophyte Chondrus crispus chips was studied under various temperature and time extraction conditions. Dried Chondrus crispus seaweed chips were milled by a rotor beater mill and classified into eight different size fractions by sieving with varying mesh sizes from 50 to 2000 μm. During extraction at 22 °C, the red color of the filtrate increased significantly with the decreasing particle size of the fraction, correlating with the increasing phycoerythrin concentration (from 0.26 mg PE/g dry seaweed in the >2000 μm size fraction to 2.30 mg PE/g dry seaweed in the 2000 μm size fraction to 2.1 ± 0.1 g/kg filtrate in the

Postharvest storage of legumes is a strategy to ensure food security. However, the hard-to-cook phenomenon, partly explained by pectin-cation-phytate theory, may develop during storage. Based on this theory, minerals could be redistributed within the matrix, affecting the concentration of free/bound minerals and hence their bioaccessibility. Therefore, this study investigated the influence of storage-induced ageing and subsequent dehulling, soaking and cooking treatments on the concentration and in vitro bioaccessibility of Ca, Mg, Fe and Zn in Bambara groundnuts. ICP-OES was performed to determine Ca, Mg, Fe and Zn concentrations after applying different treatments and after simulated digestion in the context of bioaccessibility determination. This study illustrates that while the seed coat is rich in Ca (51%), it contains only less than 15% of Mg, Fe or Zn. Hence, dehulling negatively influenced Ca, but not Mg, Fe or Zn concentration. During soaking, up to 10% or 56% of the initial Mg concentration leaches into whole or dehulled seeds, respectively. Prolonging the cooking time (300 min) of whole aged Bambara groundnuts (32 weeks), necessary for obtaining palatable textures, decreased the overall Mg, Fe and Zn concentrations by 72%, 57% and 48%, respectively. Storage-induced ageing significantly decreased Ca solubility and bioaccessibility. Bioaccessibility of trace minerals in Bambara groundnuts is low, especially for Fe, and cannot be improved by dehulling or cooking treatments. Ageing did not influence Fe and Zn bioaccessibility. Populations relying on both fresh and aged Bambara groundnuts may still be at risk for mineral deficiencies.

Mineral (Mg, Ca, Fe and Zn) bioaccessibility in common beans was evaluated taking into consideration the common bean food chain from postharvest storage over processing (soaking and cooking) until consumption. Beans were stored under realistic tropical conditions (35 °C and 80% RH) which resulted in significantly different cooking behaviour after 8 weeks compared to freshly harvested beans. Based on postcooking hardness, different storage times were selected: unstored, 8 and 20 weeks. Independently of storage conditions, beans were soaked overnight and cooked for 30, 60 or 120 min. The mineral bioaccessibility decreased with increase in both storage and cooking times. Decrease in mineral bioaccessibility with increasing storage time was proved to be the result of increasing mineral chelation of cell wall polymers (e.g. pectin). Additionally, we hypothesize that by cooking, mineral chelators become more accessible, e.g. through pectin solubilization phenomena, in turn capturing more free minerals leading to a reduced mineral bioaccessibility.

This work presents that lipid digestion kinetics of oil-in-water emulsions can be described by a mechanism-based multiresponse model. The modelling approach proposed takes into account multiple interlinked responses of in vitro lipolysis. Different reaction schemes are proposed and iteratively adapted for one dataset. Based on model discrimination, the model that best described the experimental data was selected. This selected multiresponse model assumes that 1 mol triacylglycerol hydrolyzes to release either 1 mol of monoacylglycerol and 2 mol of free fatty acids or either 3 mol of free fatty acids and 1 mol glycerol. Convergence was evaluated, as well as goodness of fit and accuracy of the parameter estimates (R2adj>0.986). The validity of this mechanistic model was checked using 28 independent datasets and clearly surpasses the outcome of single response modelling. This is the first proof of concept of the potential of multiresponse modelling in the context of food digestion. ispartof: JOURNAL OF FOOD ENGINEERING vol:260 pages:40-49 status: published

© 2019 Elsevier Ltd Particular storage conditions are described to promote the development of the hard-to-cook (HTC) phenomenon for most legumes. However, it is not clearly established whether the HTC phenomenon influences starch digestion kinetics. Therefore, this study explored how the HTC phenomenon influences in vitro starch digestion of Bambara groundnuts, taking into account three distinct HTC levels. Stored Bambara groundnuts required prolonged cooking times. Increasing storage time led to a decrease in the rate constant of texture degradation, signifying the development of the HTC phenomenon. For cooking times of 60 min and 120 min, high HTC level samples exhibited higher rate constants and extents of starch digestion compared to the fresh sample. The higher rate of digestion was attributed to the high hardness that resulted in greater cell rupture and faster access of amylase to starch. Adapting cooking times of Bambara groundnuts with distinct HTC levels to obtain equivalent hardness values and microstructures resulted in comparable starch digestion kinetics. Spectrophotometric analysis overestimated the amount of digested starch, in contrast to the more accurate HPLC analysis, which further provided more insight by quantifying multiple digestion products. This work demonstrates that it is the hardness and interlinked pattern of cell failure (microstructure) that determines starch digestion of Bambara groundnuts with distinct HTC levels. ispartof: Food Research International vol:120 pages:1-11 ispartof: location:Canada status: published

The impact of low-oxygen spiral-filter press technology combined with thermal pasteurization (TP), pulsed electric field (PEF) and high pressure processing (HPP) on cloudy apple juice quality was investigated immediately after the treatments and after 3 weeks of storage at 4 °C. Based on equivalent levels of microbial safety and desired shelf-life, low and high processing intensities were selected: TP (72 °C/15 s; 85 °C/30 s), PEF (12.5 kV/cm, 76.4 kJ/L; 12.3 kV/cm, 132.5 kJ/L), and HPP (400 MPa/3 min; 600 MPa/3 min). High intensity thermal treatment resulted in a bright, yellowish color which was maintained during storage. PPO and POD activities were largely reduced by high intensity PEF and TP yet showed high resistance to HPP. The highest vitamin C content was provided by fresh juice followed by PEF-treated juices. Due to oxidative degradation reactions, vitamin C of all treated samples significantly decreased during storage. Immediately after processing, high cloud stability values were obtained in all samples; however, cloud stability decreased during storage particularly for HPP juices with high residual PME. No significant changes were observed in pH, titratable acidity, organic acid and sugar content which also corresponded to sweet and sour taste. Results from untargeted volatile profiles showed that esters increased after PEF and were better retained after HPP. Contrary to TP treatment where ester degradation reactions occurred together with the formation of off-flavors. Most of the volatiles decreased during storage which could be linked to oxidation and ester hydrolysis reactions.Being one of the most popular fruit juices consumed worldwide, cloudy apple juice can still undergo quality changes such as color degradation, cloud loss (fast sedimentation) and flavor changes during processing and storage. This study evaluates the potential of low-oxygen spiral-filter press in combination with different preservation technologies to obtain a maximal quality of cloudy apple juice. Results showed that high intensity thermal pasteurization can effectively inactivate quality-degrading enzymes, therefore it is useful to obtain an optimal cloudy apple juice product in terms of color and cloud stability. Although HPP has minimal impact on aroma of the juice, shelf-life of the juice may be limited due to incomplete enzyme inactivation. In the case of PEF treatment, thermal effects may contribute to maintain apple juice quality. ispartof: INNOVATIVE FOOD SCIENCE & EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES vol:54 pages:64-77 status: published

The aim of this work was to study the formation of lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) with low (corn and olive oil) or high temperature melting lipids (cocoa butter and hydrogenated coconut oil). Moreover, their β-carotene stability and in vitro digestibility kinetics was evaluated. Submicron LNPs (d43 ≈ 570 -780 nm) were stabilized with Tween 80 at a surfactant-to-oil ratio (SOR) of 0.1. It was reduced below 200 nm at an SOR of 1. The β-carotene retention at 25 °C was not related to the lipid type but rather to the particle size, being lower in samples with smaller particle sizes. Cocoa butter LNPs presented an equally complete digestion as corn oil LNPs and a high β-carotene bioaccessibility, which was related to the high degree of micellarization of monoacylglycerols. This work evidences the potential of LNPs to protect lipophilic bioactive compounds with a high digestibility and bioaccessibility. ispartof: FOOD CHEMISTRY vol:278 pages:396-405 ispartof: location:England status: published

Pulses are increasingly being put forward as part of healthy diets because they are rich in protein, (slowly digestible) starch, dietary fiber, minerals, and vitamins. In pulses, nutrients are bioencapsulated by a cell wall, which mostly survives cooking followed by mechanical disintegration (e.g., mastication). In this review, we describe how different steps in the postharvest pulse value chain affect starch and protein digestion and the mineral bioaccessibility of pulses by influencing both their nutritional composition and structural integrity. Processing conditions that influence structural characteristics, and thus potentially the starch and protein digestive properties of (fresh and hard-to-cook [HTC]) pulses, have been reported in literature and are summarized in this review. The effect of thermal treatment on the pulse microstructure seems highly dependent on pulse type-specific cell wall properties and postharvest storage, which requires further investigation. In contrast to starch and protein digestion, the bioaccessibility of minerals is not dependent on the integrity of the pulse (cellular) tissue, but is affected by the presence of mineral antinutrients (chelators). Although pulses have a high overall mineral content, the presence of mineral antinutrients makes them rather poorly accessible for absorption. The negative effect of HTC on mineral bioaccessibility cannot be counteracted by thermal processing. This review also summarizes lessons learned on the use of pulses for the preparation of foods, from the traditional use of raw-milled pulse flours, to purified pulse ingredients (e.g., protein), to more innovative pulse ingredients in which cellular arrangement and bioencapsulation of macronutrients are (partially) preserved. ispartof: COMPREHENSIVE REVIEWS IN FOOD SCIENCE AND FOOD SAFETY vol:20 issue:5 pages:5067-5096 ispartof: location:United States status: published

International audience; Background: In vitro digestion methods are widely used to investigate the effect of food properties on the hydrolysis of the main macronutrients: starch, lipid and protein. The growing quantity of experimental data calls for strategies to quantitatively compare the effect of food composition and structure on their hydrolysis kinetics. Mathematical modelling is a powerful tool for this purpose as it allows to summarize complex phenomena into a few equations, and quantify relevant model parameters. Scope and approach: This review focuses on modelling in vitro digestion data, more particularly the hydrolysis of the main macronutrients at the gastric and small intestinal stages. Both static and dynamic in vitro conditions are considered, giving an overview of the modelling strategies available for each macronutrient. Besides, ongoing efforts to model the effects of food micro-and macrostructure as well as the interplay between macronutrient hydrolysis are summarized. A view on how modelling may help to bridge the gap between in vitro and in vivo studies is also provided. Key findings and conclusions: In vitro digestion and mathematical modelling are highly complementary methods. Mathematical models can provide a full and quantitative picture of the phenomena taking place, meanwhile in vitro experiments offer an excellent framework to test modelling concepts and assumptions. Some hybrid strategies, combining in vitro and in silico approaches have also been proposed to more accurately translate in vitro observations into in vivo predictions. Although very young, this field of research appears very promising to complement, or offer an alternative to experimental studies.

Attention has been given to more (semi-)dynamic in vitro digestion approaches ascertaining the consequences of dynamic in vivo aspects on in vitro digestion kinetics. As these often come with time and economical constraints, evaluating the consequence of stepwise increasing the complexity of static in vitro approaches using easy-to-handle digestion set-ups has been the center of our interest. Starting from the INFOGEST static in vitro protocol, we studied the influence of static gastric pH versus gradual gastric pH change (pH 6.3 to pH 2.5 in 2 h) on macronutrient digestion in individual cotyledon cells derived from chickpeas. Little effect on small intestinal proteolysis was observed comparing the applied digestion conditions. Contrary, the implementation of a gradual gastric pH change, with and without the addition of salivary α-amylase, altered starch digestion kinetics rates, and extents by 25%. The evaluation of starch and protein digestion, being co-embedded in cotyledon cells, did not only confirm but account for the interdependent digestion behavior. The insights generated in this study demonstrate the possibility of using a hypothesis-based approach to introduce dynamic factors to in vitro models while sticking to simple and cost-efficient set-ups. ispartof: FOOD & FUNCTION vol:12 issue:17 pages:7787-7804 ispartof: location:England status: published

Over the past years, the shift toward plant-based foods has largely increased the global awareness of the nutritional importance of legumes (common beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) in particular) and their potential role in sustainable food systems. Nevertheless, the many benefits of bean consumption may not be realized in large parts of the world, since long cooking time (lack of convenience) limits their utilization. This review focuses on the current insights in the cooking behavior (cookability) of common beans and the variables that have a direct and/or indirect impact on cooking time. The review includes the various methods to evaluate textural changes and the effect of cooking on sensory attributes and nutritional quality of beans. In this review, it is revealed that the factors involved in cooking time of beans are diverse and complex and thus necessitate a careful consideration of the choice of (pre)processing conditions to conveniently achieve palatability while ensuring maximum nutrient retention in beans. In order to harness the full potential of beans, there is a need for a multisectoral collaboration between breeders, processors, and nutritionists. ispartof: COMPREHENSIVE REVIEWS IN FOOD SCIENCE AND FOOD SAFETY vol:20 issue:4 pages:3690-3718 ispartof: location:United States status: published

International audience; Background: Hydrolysis of macronutrients is widely studied by in vitro digestion methods. The data obtained is often analyzed to a limited extent due to a lack of know-how. However, mathematical models offer a unique opportunity to gain more insight in the hydrolysis processes. Methods: Modelling approaches focusing on the hydrolysis of macronutrients are evaluated. The underlying principles are explained in an accessible way for the broad food research community. Results: Data obtained during in vitro digestion studies can serve as a basis to build mathematical models providing more in-depth insight into the diverse phenomena taking place. Three main modelling approaches can be differentiated: (i) classic kinetic models based on the decrease in substrate concentration and/or increase in product concentration; (ii) multiresponse models based on the description of a common reaction network; (iii) stochastic models based on interactions between substrate and the active site of the enzyme using cleavage probabilities. Both static and dynamic conditions are considered in recent modelling efforts. Additionally, there is increased attention for modelling complex digestive phenomena, e.g. food structure effects, (macro)nutrient interactions.

This research evaluated the impact of the emulsion interfacial composition on in vitro small intestinal lipolysis kinetics with the inclusion of rabbit gastric lipase resulting in a gastric prelipolysis step. O/w emulsions contained 5% triolein (w/w) and 1% (w/w) of the following emulsifiers: sodium taurodeoxycholate, citrus pectin, soy protein isolate, soy lecithin, and tween 80. Emulsions were subjected to static in vitro digestion and diverse lipolysis species quantified via a HPLC-charged aerosol detector. Single-response modeling indicated that the kinetics of lipolysis in the small intestinal phase were impacted by the emulsion particle size at the beginning of this phase. Multiresponse modeling permitted the elucidation of the lipolysis mechanism under in vitro conditions. The final reaction scheme included enzymatic and chemical conversions. The modeling strategies used in this research allowed to gain more insights into the kinetics and mechanism of in vitro lipid digestion. ispartof: Journal Of Agricultural And Food Chemistry vol:69 issue:16 pages:4708-4719 ispartof: location:United States status: published

This research evaluated the impact of the emulsion interfacial composition on

Nowadays, pulse flours are ingredients that are more and more used as substitutes in traditional staples (i.e., pasta, bread). In this study, cellular chickpea-flour was used as an ingredient to replace conventional raw-milled chickpea-flour in suspensions and semi-solid purees. The contribution of cellular integrity on in vitro macronutrient digestion and the subsequent effect on in vivo appetite sensations were investigated. Alternating the flour preparation sequence by interchanging hydrothermal treatment and mechanical disintegration (thermo-mechanical treatment) resulted in three chickpea-flours with distinct levels of cellular integrity, and thus nutrient accessibility. The study showed that cellular integrity in chickpea-flours was preserved upon secondary hydrothermal treatment and led to significant attenuation of in vitro macronutrient digestion as compared to conventional chickpea-flour. In a randomized crossover design, significant increase of mean in vivo subjective appetite sensations satiety and fullness along with decreases in hunger, desire to eat, and prospective food consumption were achieved when cellular integrity was kept without an effect on palatability and appearance of the purees (n = 22). In vitro digestion along with microstructural assessment confirmed the importance of cellular integrity for attenuating macronutrient digestion and thereby contributing to enhanced subjective satiety and fullness in pulses. Overall, this study highlights the promising potential of altarenating the flour preparation sequence resulting in macronutrient and energy-matched flours with different nutrient encapsulation which lead to different in vitro digestion kinetics and in vivo appetite sensations.

In this study, pectin changes during Red haricot bean storage under high temperature and high humidity conditions were investigated to understand the hard-to-cook (HTC) development from a microstructural point of view. First, to ensure repeatability of the microscopy results, a classification of the fresh and stored beans (aged at 35 °C and 83% relative humidity) into different hardening levels (the Non-aged, Aged and Very-hard aged sample) was performed based on the texture values of cooked half-cotyledons. Cell wall strength of the cotyledons was evaluated, showing that the aged samples (HTC seeds) exhibit stronger cell walls with more/stronger pectic cross-linkages than the Non-aged sample. After a sequential pectin extraction aiming at removing pectin fractions of different solubility, cell wall autofluorescence and immunolabeling of JIM7, LM9 and 2F4 epitopes in the residual materials were examined. Upon ageing, the samples exhibited an increased Ca2+-pectin and ferulic acid-pectin crosslinking, these pectic complexes being accumulated primarily at the intercellular spaces. The results suggest a contribution of both the pectin-cation-phytate hypothesis and the involvement of phenolic-pectin crosslinks in HTC development at the cotyledon during storage of common beans. ispartof: Food Research International vol:141 ispartof: location:Canada status: Published online

This investigation reports the effect of droplet size behavior on the overall lipolysis profile and molecular lipolysis mechanisms under in vitro gastric conditions. O/W emulsions (5% triolein, 1% sodium taurodeoxycholate) with different initial droplet sizes (fine: 0.58 μm; medium: 1.82 μm; and large: 4.00 μm) were subjected to static in vitro digestion. For the first time, multiple lipolysis products including diolein and monoolein regioisomers were quantified within a single HPLC run. An inverse relation was found between the droplet size and the initial rate and final extent of lipolysis based on the digested triolein. Furthermore, a mechanistic gastric lipolysis model was established based on a reaction scheme including enzymatic and chemical isomerization conversions. The estimated rate of the sn-1/3 hydrolysis was around two- to thirty-fold faster compared to the rates of sn-2 cleavage and isomerization, respectively. These findings resulted in a profound insight in in vitro gastric molecular lipolysis mechanisms. ispartof: Food Chemistry vol:326 ispartof: location:England status: Published online

Beans age during storage leading to prolonged cooking times. Chemical reactions that occur during cooking lead to volatile production and flavor generation. Whereas few studies profiled the volatile fingerprint of either non-cooked beans or beans cooked for a specific time, this study explored the evolution of volatiles through headspace fingerprinting of beans cooked at 95 °C to different extents. The influence of aging of beans on this evolution was investigated. Cooking time clearly influenced the evolution of volatiles for both fresh (non-aged) and aged beans. Aged beans exhibited more discriminant compounds than fresh beans regardless of texture considerations due to differences in pre-history of the beans. Strecker aldehydes, sulphur compounds and furan compounds were identified as marker compounds and were linked to mainly lipid oxidation and Maillard reactions. In conclusion, both aging prior to cooking and the cooking process itself largely influence the evolution of volatile compounds during cooking. ispartof: FOOD CHEMISTRY vol:275 pages:224-238 ispartof: location:England status: published

Dynamics of pectin extractability in cotyledons and seed coats were explored for mechanistic insight into pectin changes due to aging and cooking of beans. In addition, changes in mineral distribution during cooking were determined in order to investigate their retention in the matrix. Pre-soaked fresh and aged beans were cooked in demineralized water for different times and the cotyledons, seed coats and cooking water were lyophilized. From cotyledon and seed coat powders, alcohol insoluble residue (AIR) was extracted and sequentially fractionated into water-, chelator- and sodium carbonate-extractable pectin (WEP, CEP and NEP, respectively). Characterization of pectin in AIR and pectin fractions revealed inherent structural differences between cotyledon and seed coat pectin with the latter exhibiting a lower degree of methylesterification (DM) and being more linear. Due to aging, WEP decreased whilst NEP substantially increased and the CEP fraction and DM of pectin in AIR did not change significantly, suggesting a more crucial role of increased covalent bonding than cation-mediated crosslinking in aging-induced hardening of beans. During cooking, some NEP was converted into WEP and no pectin depolymerization was observed from molar mass distribution profiles. Pectin changes due to aging and cooking of beans were more pronounced in the cotyledon compared to the seed coat. Whilst Ca2+, Fe2+ and Zn2+ were largely retained in the bean matrix during cooking, Mg2+ was largely leached from cotyledons into the cooking water. In conclusion, aging-induced hardening of beans and softening during cooking were found to be premised on interconversion of pectin fractions in cotyledons.

Emulsions (d43 0.484-0.897 μm) and nanoemulsions (d43 0.279-0.226 μm) based on lipid fractions enriched with carotenoids from different sources were produced by increasing the amount of a non-ionic surfactant (Tween 80) at surfactant-to-oil ratio (SOR) 0.1 or 2, respectively. Alternatively, carrot purée in situ emulsions were fabricated by processing carrot purée with a non-enriched oil fraction and Tween 80 (SOR 0.1). Emulsions, nanoemulsions and in situ emulsion were subjected to in vitro digestion conditions with focus on the kinetics of lipid digestion, micelle formation and carotenoid bioaccessibility during the small intestinal phase. Nanoemulsions produced with a high amount of surfactant showed an almost complete lipid hydrolysis inhibition probably due to hindered lipase adsorption at oil-water interfaces. Emulsions presented a gradual lipid digestion during the intestinal phase and subsequent incorporation of lipid digestion products into mixed micelles. Interestingly, the in situ emulsion presented a similar lipid digestion trend than emulsions, yet a lower concentration of lipid digestion products incorporated into mixed micelles, which resulted in a lower carotenoid bioaccessibility. Overall, this study highlights the potential of using nanoemulsions to modulate lipid digestion. Moreover, it also indicates possible interactions between food components and lipid digestion products during the formation of mixed micelles and its implications on the bioaccessibility of lipophilic bioactives such as carotenoids. ispartof: Food Hydrocolloids vol:87 pages:119-128 status: published

When pulse seeds from a single batch are cooked, considerable variability of hardness values in the population is usually observed. Sorting the seeds into hardness categories could reduce the observed diversity and increase uniformity. Therefore, we investigated the effect of processing intensity whether or not combined with sorting into hardness categories on the in vitro starch and protein digestion kinetics of cooked Bambara groundnuts (cooking times 40 min and 120 min). The average hardness values were 89 ± 32 N and 42 ± 20 N for 40 min and 120 min cooking time, respectively. The high standard deviation of hardness for each cooking time revealed a high level of diversity amongst the seeds. Individual cells were isolated from (non-)sorted seeds before simulating digestion. The estimated lag phase describing the initial phase of starch digestion was not significantly different despite the processing intensity or the hardness category, implying that cell wall barrier properties for these samples were not majorly different. However, the rate constants and the extents of starch digestion of samples cooked for 40 min were significantly higher for the low hardness (50-65 N) compared to the high hardness (80-95 N) category (0.71 vs 1.02 starch%/min and 63 vs 77%, respectively). Kinetic evaluation of digested soluble protein (after acid hydrolysis of the digestive supernatant) showed that low hardness samples were digested faster than high hardness samples (0.037 vs 0.050 min-1). The faster protein hydrolysis in the low hardness samples was accompanied by faster starch digestion, indicating the possible role of the protein matrix barrier. Individual cells of comparable hardness obtained from the two different processing times had similar starch and protein digestion kinetics. Our work demonstrated that, beyond cooking time, hardness is a suitable food design attribute that can be used to modulate starch and protein digestion kinetics of pulse cotyledon cells. ispartof: Food Research International vol:137 ispartof: location:Canada status: Published online

Present study investigated the impact of flour preparation and thermal processing on the headspace volatile profile of aqueous suspensions of three different chickpea flour types (non-gelatinised open cell flour, pre-gelatinised open cell flour and pre-gelatinised closed cell flour). Suspensions with non-gelatinised chickpea flour contained higher abundances of several aldehydes, alcohols and hydrocarbons, resulting from enzymatic lipid breakdown, compared to the suspensions with pre-gelatinised open or closed cell flour, as enzymes were not inactivated during the production of the former flour. Pre-gelatinised open cell flour contained higher abundances of compounds including dimethyl sulphide, methyl thioacetate and trichloromethane. Additionally, cell intactness influenced the volatile profile of chickpea flour to a limited extent, as pre-gelatinised closed cell flour contained the lowest number of discriminant compounds. Even after thermal processing, the volatile profiles of the three chickpea flour types remained distinct, although during this processing several volatiles were broken down and thermal degradation of fatty acids and amino acids additionally occurred. It was concluded that the pre-gelatinisation step during flour production was the most dominant factor influencing the volatile composition of flour suspensions and that additional research is required to compare the volatile profile of the flour types in presence of other food ingredients. ispartof: LWT-FOOD SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY vol:160 status: published

The present work focused on the (i) physical characterization of the emulsion stabilizing potential of citrus pectin (CP) with different degree of methylesterification (DM; CP82, CP38 and CP10) and (ii) evaluation of interactions that occur between CP and conventional emulsifiers (Tween80 and phosphatidylcholine) used for emulsion stabilization. Firstly, the emulsifying properties of different samples were studied by evaluating the electrical charge, hydrodynamic radius, adsorbed layer thickness and change in interfacial tension. The results showed that the pectin charge was strongly dependent on its DM and pH of the aqueous phase. For example, the hydrodynamic volume and adsorbed layer thickness of CP10 were larger compared to CP38 and CP82 at neutral pH due to the presence of more chargeable carboxylic groups. Moreover, it was quantitatively shown that CP is capable of reducing the interfacial tension of an oil droplet regardless its DM, evidencing its adsorption at the oil-water interfaces and surface active properties. Secondly, the physicochemical stability of oil-in-water emulsions was evaluated during short-term storage at 4 °C. All pectin-emulsions showed the formation of a cream layer after one day. However, the nature and extent of this layer depended on the emulsion composition. All pectin single-emulsifier stabilized emulsions presented a cream layer most likely caused by bridging flocculation induced by the pectin structures. Contrastingly, depletion flocculation was observed in case of the multiple-emulsifier stabilized emulsions. In all cases, the destabilization phenomena observed were reversible as the particle size did not dramatically change over storage time, showing that CP has emulsion stabilizing potential. ispartof: FOOD HYDROCOLLOIDS vol:85 pages:144-157 status: published

The role of molar mass in determining Ca2+-ion maximum adsorption capacity of polygalacturonic acid (PGA) and low methylesterified citrus pectin (CP) as well as their interaction energy was established through equilibrium dialysis followed by colorimetric determination of free ions. Modeling of the moles of Ca2+-ions bound per mole of galacturonic acid or non-methylesterified carboxyl groups against the equilibrium Ca2+-ion concentration based on the Langmuir adsorption isotherm model, revealed a decrease in maximum adsorption capacity and interaction energy with decreasing molar mass. In this context, monogalacturonic acid exhibited negligible Ca2+-binding potential. At a given molar mass, higher Ca2+-binding was observed for PGA due to a higher number of consecutive non-methylesterified galacturonic acid residues (very low residual degree of methylesterification, DM

The cognition of original qualitative attributes of native Peruvian chili peppers elucidate their potential industrial exploitation. There is a lack of scientific information about chili pepper physicochemical and nutritional attributes, that hampers their immediate industrial use. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to characterize twenty Peruvian chili pepper landraces in terms of structural and nutritional properties. In particular, the Bostwick consistency index of chili purees, dry matter, dietary fibers and pectin content were determined. In addition, the color and carotenoid profile of each landrace were studied. A wide range of consistency and stability were found, and partially explained by the dry matter, dietary fiber and pectin content. C. annuum landraces displayed the highest dry matter and fiber content. Moreover, different carotenoid profiles were observed, being β-carotene the most abundant in almost all the samples. Capsanthin was present only in red landraces, while yellow ones had low total carotenoid content. High Retinol Activity Equivalent levels were determined for red peppers, while high insoluble dietary fiber level was found in all the samples. Cluster analysis, including all the chili pepper attributes, showed no relation between taxonomical classification and chili peppers structural, sensorial, and nutritional characteristics. Unique features of studied chili pepper landraces presented in this work should be considered during their industrial processing. In this context, these results might be considered a starting point for processing design and for the proper valorization of this raw material.