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Immune responses affiliated with COVID-19 severity have been characterized and associated with deleterious outcomes. These approaches were mainly based on research tools not usable in routine clinical practice at the bedside. We observed that a multiplex transcriptomic panel prototype termed Immune Profiling Panel (IPP) could capture the dysregulation of immune responses of ICU COVID-19 patients at admission. Nine transcripts were associated with mortality in univariate analysis and this 9-mRNA signature remained significantly associated with mortality in a multivariate analysis that included age, SOFA and Charlson scores. Using a machine learning model with these 9 mRNA, we could predict the 28-day survival status with an Area Under the Receiver Operating Curve (AUROC) of 0.764. Interestingly, adding patients' age to the model resulted in increased performance to predict the 28-day mortality (AUROC reaching 0.839). This prototype IPP demonstrated that such a tool, upon clinical/analytical validation and clearance by regulatory agencies could be used in clinical routine settings to quickly identify patients with higher risk of death requiring thus early aggressive intensive care., Competing Interests: CT, VC, EC, KI, KB-P, EP, MBo, LK, SB, and J-FL are bioMérieux’s employees. EP, GM, and FV are co-inventors in patent applications covering the following markers: CX3CR1, CD127, IL10 and S100A9. bioFire – a bioMérieux company - holds patents on the technology. This does not alter the authors’ adherence to all the policies on sharing data and materials. The remaining authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2022 Tardiveau, Monneret, Lukaszewicz, Cheynet, Cerrato, Imhoff, Peronnet, Bodinier, Kreitmann, Blein, Llitjos, Conti, Gossez, Buisson, Yonis, Cour, Argaud, Delignette, Wallet, Dailler, Monard, Brengel-Pesce, Venet and the RICO study group.)

Background: Novel biomarkers are needed to progress toward individualized patient care in sepsis. The immune profiling panel (IPP) prototype has been designed as a fully-automated multiplex tool measuring expression levels of 26 genes in sepsis patients to explore immune functions, determine sepsis endotypes and guide personalized clinical management. The performance of the IPP gene set to predict 30-day mortality has not been extensively characterized in heterogeneous cohorts of sepsis patients., Methods: Publicly available microarray data of sepsis patients with widely variable demographics, clinical characteristics and ethnical background were co-normalized, and the performance of the IPP gene set to predict 30-day mortality was assessed using a combination of machine learning algorithms., Results: We collected data from 1,801 arrays sampled on sepsis patients and 598 sampled on controls in 17 studies. When gene expression was assayed at day 1 following admission (1,437 arrays sampled on sepsis patients, of whom 1,161 were alive and 276 (19.2%) were dead at day 30), the IPP gene set showed good performance to predict 30-day mortality, with an area under the receiving operating characteristics curve (AUROC) of 0.710 (CI 0.652-0.768). Importantly, there was no statistically significant improvement in predictive performance when training the same models with all genes common to the 17 microarray studies ( n = 7,122 genes), with an AUROC = 0.755 (CI 0.697-0.813, p = 0.286). In patients with gene expression data sampled at day 3 following admission or later, the IPP gene set had higher performance, with an AUROC = 0.804 (CI 0.643-0.964), while the total gene pool had an AUROC = 0.787 (CI 0.610-0.965, p = 0.811)., Conclusion: Using pooled publicly-available gene expression data from multiple cohorts, we showed that the IPP gene set, an immune-related transcriptomics signature conveys relevant information to predict 30-day mortality when sampled at day 1 following admission. Our data also suggests that higher predictive performance could be obtained when assaying gene expression at later time points during the course of sepsis. Prospective studies are needed to confirm these findings using the IPP gene set on its dedicated measurement platform., Competing Interests: The IPP gene set has been filed for patent protection. LK was employed by, and has received research funding by bioMérieux. MB, AF, KI, M-AC, EP, EC, CT, J-FL, JT, SB, and KB-P were employed by bioMérieux. The remaining authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2022 Kreitmann, Bodinier, Fleurie, Imhoff, Cazalis, Peronnet, Cerrato, Tardiveau, Conti, Llitjos, Textoris, Monneret, Blein and Brengel-Pesce.)

Here, we present a protocol for flow cytometry analysis of endothelial cells (ECs) and CD8+ T cells in murine tumor models, at baseline and after cancer immunotherapy with anti-PD-1/anti-CTLA-4 antibodies. We provide gating strategies for identification of specific cell subsets including ECs from tumor-associated high endothelial venules (TA-HEVs), stem-like, and terminally exhausted CD8+ T cells. This protocol represents a valuable tool for the analysis of rare subsets of tumor ECs and CD8+ T cells with critical roles in antitumor immunity. For complete details on the use and execution of this protocol, please refer to Asrir et al. (2022)., Competing Interests: The authors declare no competing interests., (© 2022 The Author(s).)

Background: In critically ill COVID-19 patients, the initial response to SARS-CoV-2 infection is characterized by major immune dysfunctions. The capacity of these severe patients to mount a robust and persistent SARS-CoV-2 specific T cell response despite the presence of severe immune alterations during the ICU stay is unknown., Methods: Critically ill COVID-19 patients were sampled five times during the ICU stay and 9 and 13 months afterwards. Immune monitoring included counts of lymphocyte subpopulations, HLA-DR expression on monocytes, plasma IL-6 and IL-10 concentrations, anti-SARS-CoV-2 IgG levels and T cell proliferation in response to three SARS-CoV-2 antigens., Findings: Despite the presence of major lymphopenia and decreased monocyte HLA-DR expression during the ICU stay, convalescent critically ill COVID-19 patients consistently generated adaptive and humoral immune responses against SARS-CoV-2 maintained for more than one year after hospital discharge. Patients with long hospital stays presented with stronger anti-SARS-CoV-2 specific T cell response but no difference in anti-SARS-CoV2 IgG levels., Interpretation: Convalescent critically ill COVID-19 patients consistently generated a memory immune response against SARS-CoV-2 maintained for more than one year after hospital discharge. In recovered individuals, the intensity of SARS-CoV-2 specific T cell response was dependent on length of hospital stay., Funding: This observational study was supported by funds from the Hospices Civils de Lyon, Fondation HCL, Claude Bernard Lyon 1 University and Région Auvergne Rhône-Alpes and by partial funding by REACTing (Research and ACTion targeting emerging infectious diseases) INSERM, France and a donation from Fondation AnBer (http://fondationanber.fr/)., Competing Interests: Declaration of interests MB, CT, KBG, VC and MAC are bioMérieux's employees. This private company had no role in the study design, result analysis and decision to publish this study. PV received consulting fees and payment for a literature review from Pfizer and Astellas. All other authors have declared no conflicts of interest., (Copyright © 2022 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Recruitment of lymphocytes into tumors is critical for anti-tumor immunity and efficacious immunotherapy. We show in murine models that tumor-associated high endothelial venules (TA-HEVs) are major sites of lymphocyte entry into tumors at baseline and upon treatment with anti-PD-1/anti-CTLA-4 immune checkpoint blockade (ICB). TA-HEV endothelial cells (TA-HECs) derive from post-capillary venules, co-express MECA-79 + HEV sialomucins and E/P-selectins, and are associated with homing and infiltration into tumors of various T cell subsets. Intravital microscopy further shows that TA-HEVs are the main sites of lymphocyte arrest and extravasation into ICB-treated tumors. Increasing TA-HEC frequency and maturation increases the proportion of tumor-infiltrating stem-like CD8 + T cells, and ameliorates ICB efficacy. Analysis of tumor biopsies from 93 patients with metastatic melanoma reveals that TA-HEVs are predictive of better response and survival upon treatment with anti-PD-1/anti-CTLA-4 combination. These studies provide critical insights into the mechanisms governing lymphocyte trafficking in cancer immunity and immunotherapy., Competing Interests: Declaration of interests C.R. is an occasional consultant to Bristol Myers Squibb, Roche, Amgen, Novartis, Pierre Fabre, MSD, Sanofi, Biothera, CureVac, and Merck. All other authors have no competing interests., (Copyright © 2022 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Background: Lymphopenia is a hallmark of severe coronavirus disease 19 (COVID-19). Similar alterations have been described in bacterial sepsis and therapeutic strategies targeting T cell function such as recombinant human interleukin 7 (rhIL-7) have been proposed in this clinical context. As COVID-19 is a viral sepsis, the objectives of this study were to characterize T lymphocyte response over time in severe COVID-19 patients and to assess the effect of ex vivo administration of rhIL-7., Results: Peripheral blood mononuclear cells from COVID-19 patients hospitalized in intensive care unit (ICU) were collected at admission and after 20 days. Transcriptomic profile was evaluated through NanoString technology. Inhibitory immune checkpoints expressions were determined by flow cytometry. T lymphocyte proliferation and IFN-γ production were evaluated after ex vivo stimulation in the presence or not of rhIL-7. COVID-19 ICU patients were markedly lymphopenic at admission. Mononuclear cells presented with inhibited transcriptomic profile prevalently with impaired T cell activation pathways. CD4 + and CD8 + T cells presented with over-expression of co-inhibitory molecules PD-1, PD-L1, CTLA-4 and TIM-3. CD4 + and CD8 + T cell proliferation and IFN-γ production were markedly altered in samples collected at ICU admission. These alterations, characteristic of a T cell exhaustion state, were more pronounced at ICU admission and alleviated over time. Treatment with rhIL-7 ex vivo significantly improved both T cell proliferation and IFN-γ production in cells from COVID-19 patients., Conclusions: Severe COVID-19 patients present with features of profound T cell exhaustion upon ICU admission which can be reversed ex vivo by rhIL-7. These results reinforce our understanding of severe COVID-19 pathophysiology and opens novel therapeutic avenues to treat such critically ill patients based of immunomodulation approaches. Defining the appropriate timing for initiating such immune-adjuvant therapy in clinical setting and the pertinent markers for a careful selection of patients are now warranted to confirm the ex vivo results described so far. Trial registration ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT04392401 Registered 18 May 2020, http:// clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04392401., (© 2022. The Author(s).)

Background: As COVID-19 pandemic and vaccination effects progress, research now focuses on adaptive immunological response to SARS-CoV-2. Few studies specifically investigated intensive care unit (ICU) patients, and little is known about kinetics of humoral response in such critically ill patients. In this context, the main objective of the present work was to perform a longitudinal analysis of the humoral response in critically ill COVID-19 patients with prolonged ICU stays in regard with initial inflammatory response, disease severity and mortality., Methods: Over a 3 week period, circulating immunoglobulins (Ig) against SARS-CoV-2 along with several immunological and clinical parameters were measured in 64 ICU COVID-19 patients., Results: Critically ill COVID-19 patients mounted a dynamic and sustained antibody response of both IgM and IgG as soon as the first day of ICU hospitalization. This serological response was not associated with any of the classical immunological parameters measured at ICU admission or with initial severity clinical scores. IgM and IgG levels and seroconversion trajectories were not associated with unfavourable outcome., Conclusion: Despite rapid seroconversion and elevated humoral response, COVID-19 patients are still characterized by elevated mortality. Additional studies, including cytotoxic T cell functions, are mandatory to understand the immunological mechanisms contributing to long stay of COVID-19 patients in ICU., Competing Interests: Conflict of Interest VC, GO, CT, EC and KBP are employees of bioMérieux SA. FC, VC, GO, CT, EC, KBP, ACL, TR and GM work in a joint research unit, co-funded by the Hospices Civils de Lyon, bioMérieux SA and Lyon-1 University (UR7426). Authors declare no other competing interests., (Copyright © 2021. Published by Elsevier Inc.)

The adult Göttingen Minipig is an acknowledged model for safety assessment of antisense oligonucleotide (ASO) drugs developed for adult indications. To assess whether the juvenile Göttingen Minipig is also a suitable nonclinical model for pediatric safety assessment of ASOs, we performed an 8-week repeat-dose toxicity study in different age groups of minipigs ranging from 1 to 50 days of age. The animals received a weekly dose of a phosphorothioated locked-nucleic-acid-based ASO that was assessed previously for toxicity in adult minipigs. The endpoints included toxicokinetic parameters, in-life monitoring, clinical pathology, and histopathology. Additionally, the ontogeny of key nucleases involved in ASO metabolism and pharmacologic activity was investigated using quantitative polymerase chain reaction and nuclease activity assays. Similar clinical chemistry and toxicity findings were observed; however, differences in plasma and tissue exposures as well as pharmacologic activity were seen in the juvenile minipigs when compared with the adult data. The ontogeny study revealed a differential nuclease expression and activity, which could affect the metabolic pathway and pharmacologic effect of ASOs in different tissues and age groups. These data indicate that the juvenile Göttingen Minipig is a promising nonclinical model for safety assessment of ASOs intended to treat disease in the human pediatric population.

High-endothelial venules (HEVs) are specialized blood vessels allowing recirculation of naive lymphocytes through lymphoid organs. Here, using full-length, single-cell RNA sequencing, RNA fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH), flow cytometry, and immunohistofluorescence, we reveal the heterogeneity of HEVs in adult mouse peripheral lymph nodes (PLNs) under conditions of homeostasis, antigenic stimulation, and after inhibition of lymphotoxin-β receptor (LTβR) signaling. We demonstrate that HEV endothelial cells are in an activated state during homeostasis, and we identify the genes characteristic of the differentiated HEV phenotype. We show that LTβR signaling regulates many HEV genes and pathways in resting PLNs and that immune stimulation induces a global and temporary inflammatory phenotype in HEVs without compromising their ability to recruit naive lymphocytes. Most importantly, we uncover differences in the regulation of genes controlling lymphocyte trafficking, Glycam1, Fut7, Gcnt1, Chst4, B3gnt3, and Ccl21a, that have implications for HEV function and regulation in health and disease., (Copyright © 2019 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)