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El medi ambient és un dels reptes més importants del segle XXI. La conservació dels recursos naturals i la qualitat de l'aigua, l'aire, els sòls i els ecosistemes naturals o construïts és una condició bàsica per garantir un desenvolupament equilibrat i sostenible per les generacions futures. Les activitats esportives poden ser factors contaminants però, quan es duen a terme de manera responsable, poden participar en la protecció del medi ambient i dels recursos. Aquesta lliçó presenta conceptes generals sobre els reptes mediambientals, les responsabilitats i les accions del Moviment Olímpic, i la manera de desenvolupar activitats esportives relacionades amb el medi ambient. El medio ambiente es uno de los retos más importantes del siglo XXI. La conservación de los recursos naturales y la calidad del agua, el aire, los suelos y los ecosistemas naturales o construidos es una condición básica para garantizar un desarrollo equilibrado y sostenible para las generaciones futuras. Las actividades deportivas pueden ser factores contaminantes pero, cuando se llevan a cabo de manera responsable, pueden participar en la protección del medio ambiente y de los recursos. Esta lección presenta conceptos generales sobre los retos medioambientales, las responsabilidades y las acciones del Movimiento Olímpico, y la manera de desarrollar actividades deportivas relacionadas con el medio ambiente. Environment is one of the most important challenges of 21st century. Conserving natural resources and the quality of water, air, soils and of natural or build ecosystems is the basic condition to ensure a balanced and sustainable development for future generations. Sport activities can be polluting factors but, when realised in a responsible manner, they can contribute to the protection of the environment and resources. This lesson presents general concepts concerning environmental challenges, the responsibilities and actions of the Olympic Movement and the ways in which to develop sport activities with respect to the environment.

Composting (aerobic treatment of organic wastes) and digestion (anaerobic treatment of organic wastes combined with biogas production) are important waste management strategies with increasing significance in the European Union and Switzerland. Most of the compost produced is applied to agricultural soils, which hereby recycles nutrients and influences soil properties beneficially. However, compost can contain pollutants that may be hazardous for the soil ecosystem. The problem related to heavy metals had been recognised and measures for reduction were taken. Regarding organic pollutants, the current knowledge is insufficient for quality control and risk assessment. This thesis provides a comprehensive overview on organic contaminates in compost, digestate, and presswater and describes factors that may influence them. In the beginning an extensive literature review was carried out to summarize the current data. Compound classes to be analysed in Swiss composts and digestates were prioritized and analytical methods established. Polychlorinated biphenyl concentrations (∑ of PCB 28, 52, 101, 118, 138, 153, 180) were significantly higher in urban (median: 30 μg/kgdry weight (dw), n=52) than in rural samples (median: 14 μg/kgdw, n=16), which points – together with low concentrations in general – to aerial deposition on feedstock material as major input pathway to compost. Median polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) concentration was 3010 μg/kgdw (∑ of 16 PAH defined by the US EPA except dibenzo[a,h]anthracene, n=69). PAH levels were influenced by the organic matter degradation process (higher levels in digestate than in compost), the season of input material collection (spring/summer>winter>autumn), the particle size (higher concentrations in unsieved or sieved >20mm than in sieved to ≤ 20mm products), and maturity (lower concentrations in more mature composts). One fourth of the samples exhibited PAH concentrations above the Swiss guide value for compost (Ordinance on the Reductions of Risks linked to Chemical Products). These elevated concentrations can lead to considerable input of PAH to soil by compost application. To assess the major contributors of PAH in compost, characteristic PAH ratios and some molecular markers were considered, which pointed mainly to combustion origin of these contaminants. Multifactor statistical analysis indicated traffic emission, straw combustion and some asphalt abrasion as potential additional sources. Concentrations of other organic pollutants determined (dibenzo-p-dioxins and -furans, dioxin-like PCB, brominated flame retardants (BFR), perfluorinated alkyl substances (PFAS), di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate, nonylphenol and chlorinated paraffins) were mostly above levels found in background soil, except for nonylphenol, which was not detected. Out of 269 pesticides analysed, 30 fungicides, 14 herbicides, eight insecticides and one acaricide were detected. For the first time, the fate of organic pollutants during full-scale composting and digestion was assessed. Concentrations of low chlorinated PCB increased during composting (about 30 %), whereas a slight decrease was observed for the higher chlorinated congeners (about 10%). Enantiomeric ratios of atropisomeric PCB were close to racemic and did not change. Levels of low molecular weight PAH were reduced during composting (50 to 90% reduction), whereas heavier compounds remained stable. However, as indicated above, conventional composting does not reduce PAH concentrations sufficiently to comply with Swiss guide values (see above). Further research is needed to i) identify measures to reduce PAH concentrations in digestate and compost, ii) to monitor organic pollutants that are still increasing in other environmental matrices (e.g. BFR and PFAS) or identify new compounds which have not been detected in compost yet, iii) to evaluate potential risk of compost application to soil by assessing the bioavailable fractions of organic pollutants and iv) to examine possible new input materials and co-substrates for composting and digestion.

Problems related to Dioxins contamination in Southern Vietnam are until now still a hot newsreel and controversy subject in international conferences as well as in many articles. The adverse effects of Dioxins residue from chemicals used by U.S. Army during the Vietnam War (Ranch Hand Operation 1961 to 1971) have caused many consequences not only to Vietnamese ecosystem and people but also to the U.S army veterans that participated in the war at that period as reported in many scientific reports. In Vietnam, since 1980 many studies have been carried out in collaboration with overseas scientists and laboratories on Dioxin contamination levels as well as its influences on ecosystem and human health. However, regardless of many efforts, up to now the problem of Dioxin contamination and its consequences is not yet completely and appropriately solved. There is still relative high Dioxins residue in the areas named as "hot spot" in Southern Vietnam and its contamination is causing the adverse effects on local residents. Nowadays, studies on this subject are relatively difficult to perform due to many factors: over 30 years passed; land use disturbance; degradation and transfer of dioxin into biological food web; population emigration; etc.. In addition, a lack of related documents and military secrets also contributed to this. With the support of SDC in frame of a collaboration project between Vietnam and Switzerland, we have carried out the research named "Sources and Fate of PCDDs and PCDFs in rural and urban ecosystem and food chains of South-Vietnam". Our research has examined integratelly the PCDD/Fs sources with special regard on the PCDD/Fs source from the war, but also consider the others possible sources such industrial and municipal combustions, agricultural used chemicals, etc. The selected locations for our research have been set up based on collected document from Division 10-80 and Office 33 (two responsible organizations for Dioxins and related problems in Vietnam): CamLo District – QuangTri Province; DaNang City; MaDa Forest and BienHoa City (BienHoa Airforce Base and BienHung Lake) – DongNai Province; and industrial zone – Thu Duc – Hochiminh City. Seventeen 2,3,7,8-PCDD/Fs congeners have been chosen for our research due to their high toxicities. Soil, sediment, municipal waste incinerator (MWI) bottom ash, fish tissue, and human adipose are selected as the matrices to examine the PCDD/Fs residue. The result showed that even after more than 30 years, the PCDD/Fs concentration based on i-TEQ value (especially for 2,3,7,8-TCDD) is still higher than guideline values in some countries: very high i-TEQ value in cultivate soil of CamLo district and DaNang City. For the area named "hot spot" such BienHoa Airforce Base and BienHung Lake, the i-TEQ value and 2,3,7,8-TCDD concentration in soil and sediment are superior than values proposed by Agency for Toxic Substance and Disease Registry (ATSDR), Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment (CCME) and U.S Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA). The PCDD/Fs concentration in fish tissue of BienHung Lake (catfish and snake-head) is superior in comparison with European Council (EC) standard. The dioxin contamination risk for local resident health is very high due to the lack of information and inconsiderable attention of responsible organizations about this problem. As BienHoa was selected as a case-study for PCDD/Fs transfer in food chain, using statistic methods (cluster analysis and Principal Component Analysis - PCA), we have showed a high similarity of PCDD/Fs profiles pattern between BienHoa Airforce Base soils, BienHung Lake sediments and fish tissue. The similarity in PCDD/Fs relative i-TEQ profiles between MWIs bottom ash and soil of industrial zone ThuDuc proves that industrial and municipal combustions are responsible sources for PCDD/Fs in the soil of such these zones. However in comparison with the sites contaminated by Agent Orange (A.O)/Dioxin, the PCDD/Fs contamination level in the industrial soil is lower and mainly dominated by PCDFs than PCDDs. The result also showed comparables i-TEQ values in BienHoa residents with inhabitants of industrial countries, however Vietnam is only developing and agricultural country. Beside that, 2,3,7,8-TCDD has been detected in many tested cases. 2,3,7,8-TCDD is the most toxic compound and related to the A.O/Dioxins from the war, unfortunately we have not enough data to assess the relationship between A.O/Dioxin residue and these samples. To find out this relationship it is necessary an integrated large-scale investigation. Result of our research serves as a base for set-up a reference laboratory for PCDD/Fs and dioxin-liked compounds research in the South of Vietnam. At present time, a small laboratory for PCDD/Fs analysis has been installed in IER and serves as a member of VietNam Dioxin Research Network.

Adverse effects on the environment have become a matter of increasing concern considering the increase of industrialization and of the amount of commercialized chemicals. At present, approximately 100'000 substances are on the market, 3000 are sold at high volumes. In Europe, 200 to 300 new substances are authorized every year (in Switzerland, approximately 50). Contamination is induced by consumption of numerous products frequently applied by private or professional users. Persistence and ecotoxicity of certain organic compounds contained in these products might have impacts on the quality of our environment. Knowledge on potential sources of these substances is the first step in order to limit their release. The project developed within the present PhD thesis aims at determining the sources of certain compounds by applying material flux analysis on the basis of sewage sludge. Presently, a large number of anthropogenic organic compounds originating from private households, craft industry, industry and stormwater is disposed of into the collector system and ends up in sewage sludge. Carbendazim, diuron, Irgarol 1051®, octhilinone, permethrin, tributyltin (TBT) and triphenyltin (TPT) comprise numerous applications as biocides and pesticides whilst methylbenzylidene camphor (4-MBC), octyl methoxy cinnamate (OMC), octocrylene (OC) and octyl triazone (OT) are used as UV-screens (type UVB) in a large number of cosmetic products. Their toxic effects on non-target organisms and their potential for bioaccumulation give rise to environmental concern. These substances are used as ingredients in products of daily use and are disposed of into wastewater. Due to their physico-chemical properties they are more or less lipophilic and are likely to persist in sewage sludge. On the basis of the analysis of sewage sludge samples from well characterized sites (catchments and wastewater treatment plants, WWTPs) it is possible to determine the sources (private households, craft industry, industry and stormwater). The first step of this study was the development of analytical methods which allow for quantification of these compounds in sewage sludge. Due to their different physico-chemical properties, four different methods were required. These methods have recovery rates ranging between 75 and 106 % and limits of detection in the order of μg/kg dry matter. The analysis of sludge from 12 sites obtained within 2 sampling periods show that most of the substances are present in all samples. Mean concentrations were 6,8 μg/kg dm (dry matter) for carbendazim, 9,5 μg/ kg d.m. for diuron, 98,1 μg/kg d.m. for permethrin, 148 μg/kg d.m. for TBT, 1777 μg/kg d.m.for 4-MBC, 110 μg/kg d.m. for OMC, 4834 μg/kg d.m. for OC and 5517 μg/kg d.m. for OT. Octhilinone was not detected whilst Irgarol 1051® and TPT were found in 7 and 11 samples, respectively. The transfer of these compounds from wastewater into sludge is an important parameter for material flux analysis on the basis of sewage sludge. A study on the fate of carbendazime and permethrin during wastewater treatment has been carried out on two WWTPs. Whilst removal of permethrin was high (>94%) up to 70% of carbendazime present in sewage were found in treatment plant effluents. Adsorption is an important process for removal of permethrin. However, only 4 to 15 % of the load in wastewater was transferred to sewage sludge. Carbendazim is mainly associated to the aqueous phase and thus, a very small quantity ends up in sludge (approximately 1%). Therefore, the loads found in sewage sludge are more or less representative for consumption of the compounds in the catchments according to their physico-chemical properties. Additionally, it has been shown that the part of permethrine ending up in sludge depends on the treatment techniques of the WWTPs. Thus, for comparison of the pollutant loads in sewage sludge between different sites their fate in the WWTPs has to be known. The loads per inhabitant of the three well characterized types of sites have been calculated in order to determine the sources of the substances. Type A comprises sites with a separate sewer system and a catchment where mainly private households are present. Type B has a combined sewer system collecting sewage from private households, craft industry and stormwater whilst type C comprises a combined sewer system which includes effluents from private households and industry as well as stormwater. The results are as follows: Stromwater is considered as main source of carbendazim in wastewater whilst diuron originates mainly from stormwater and from industrial effluents. Private households contribute significantly to the loads of permethrine and TBT in sewage. For UV-screens the loads from private households are also important but stormwater and industrial effluents are likely to be potential sources as well. A difference in consumption between rural (type A) and more urban sites (type B and C) is possible which might hamper a proper estimate of the sources of UV-screens.