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Abstract Background Reactive case detection (RACD) for malaria control has been found effective in low transmission settings, but its impact and cost-effectiveness in moderate-to-high transmission settings are unknown. We conducted an economic evaluation alongside an empirical trial of a modified RACD strategy (1,7-mRCTR) in three moderate-to-high malaria transmission districts in Tanzania. Methods The costs and cost savings associated with the intervention relative to passive case detection alone were estimated in the study sites of Kilwa, Kibiti, and Rufiji districts in Tanzania from 2019–2021. Empirical cost data were collected using household surveys. The incremental costs of the intervention were calculated from under a societal perspective. Costs are reported in 2022 US dollars. Trial data and malaria registers from health facilities were used to calculate the number of malaria cases detected. We simulated unobserved and distal health effects of the intervention to assess cost-effectiveness in terms of incremental cost-effectiveness ratios (ICERs). Propagated uncertainty was assessed via second-order Monte Carlo simulation, including bootstrapping of empirical data distributions. Incremental costs per disability-adjusted life year (DALY) averted were compared to a willingness-to-pay threshold based on estimated opportunity costs of healthcare spending in Tanzania. Results The programmatic cost of the 1,7-mRCTR intervention was 5327 United States Dollars (USD) per 1000 population. The combination of reactive and passive case detection in the intervention arm resulted in an additional 445 malaria cases detected per 1000 compared to passive detection alone, yielding an incremental cost per additional case detected of 12.0 USD. Based on modelling results, for every percentage point decline in malaria prevalence, the intervention averted 95.2 cases and 0.04 deaths per 1000 population. On average, the 1,7-mRCTR intervention averted 19.1 DALYs per 1000 population. Compared to passive malaria detection, the ICERs for the 1,7-mRCTR intervention were 7.3 USD per case averted, 16,884 USD per death averted, and 163 USD per DALY averted. Conclusions Our analysis demonstrates that the 1,7-mRCTR intervention appears to be cost-effective under a willingness-to-pay threshold of 417 USD per DALY averted, showing that modified RACD strategies can provide value for money in moderate-to-high transmission settings. Graphical Abstract

Abstract Background Progress in malaria control has stalled in recent years and innovative surveillance and response approaches are needed to accelerate malaria control and elimination efforts in endemic areas of Africa. Building on a previous China-UK-Tanzania pilot study on malaria control, this study aimed to assess the impact of the 1,7-malaria Reactive Community-Based Testing and Response (1,7-mRCTR) approach implemented over two years in three districts of Tanzania. Methods The 1,7-mRCTR approach provides community-based malaria testing via rapid diagnostic tests and treatment in villages with the highest burden of malaria incidence based on surveillance data from health facilities. We used a difference-in-differences quasi-experimental design with linear probability models and two waves of cross-sectional household surveys to assess the impact of 1,7-mRCTR on malaria prevalence. We conducted sensitivity analyses to assess the robustness of our results, examined how intervention effects varied in subgroups, and explored alternative explanations for the observed results. Results Between October 2019 and September 2021, 244,771 community-based malaria rapid tests were completed in intervention areas, and each intervention village received an average of 3.85 rounds of 1-7mRCTR. Malaria prevalence declined from 27.4% at baseline to 11.7% at endline in the intervention areas and from 26.0% to 16.0% in the control areas. 1,7-mRCTR was associated with a 4.5-percentage-point decrease in malaria prevalence (95% confidence interval: − 0.067, − 0.023), equivalent to a 17% reduction from the baseline. In Rufiji, a district characterized by lower prevalence and where larviciding was additionally provided, 1,7-mRCTR was associated with a 63.9% decline in malaria prevalence. Conclusions The 1,7-mRCTR approach reduced malaria prevalence. Despite implementation interruptions due to the COVID-19 pandemic and supply chain challenges, the study provided novel evidence on the effectiveness of community-based reactive approaches in moderate- to high-endemicity areas and demonstrated the potential of South-South cooperation in tackling global health challenges. Graphical Abstract

Abstract Background Strengthening malaria control activities in Tanzania has dramatically declined human malaria infections. However, there is an increasing epidemiological shift in the burden on school-age children. The underlying causes for such an epidemiological shift remain unknown in this context. This study explored activities and behaviours that could increase the vulnerability of school-age children to transmission risk to provide insight into protection gap with existing interventions and opportunities for supplementary interventions. Methods This cross-sectional study conducted twenty-four focus group discussions (FGDs) in three districts of Rufiji, Kibiti and Kilwa in south-eastern Tanzania. Sixteen FGDs worked with school-age children (13 to 18 years) separating girls and boys and eight FGDs with their parents in mixed-gender groups. A total of 205 community members participated in FGDs across the study area. Of them, 72 participants were parents, while 133 were school-age children (65 boys and 68 girls). Results Routine domestic activities such as fetching water, washing kitchen utensils, cooking, and recreational activities such as playing and watching television and studying were the reported activities that kept school-age children outdoors early evening to night hours (between 18:00 and 23:00). Likewise, the social and cultural events including initiation ceremonies and livelihood activities also kept this age group outdoors from late evening to early night and sometimes past midnight hours. Parents migrating to farms from December to June, leaving behind school-age children unsupervised affecting their net use behaviour plus spending more time outdoors at night, and the behaviour of children sprawling legs and hands while sleeping inside treated bed nets were identified as potential risks to infectious mosquito bites. Conclusion The risky activities, behaviours, and social events mostly occurring outdoors might increase school-age children’s vulnerability to malaria infections. The findings provide preliminary insight on potential risk factors for persisting transmission. Further studies to quantify the risk behaviour and activities are recommended to establish the magnitude and anticipated impact on supplementary control strategies to control infection in school-age children.

Abstract Background Early-evening and outdoor-biting mosquitoes may compromise the effectiveness of frontline malaria interventions, notably insecticide-treated nets (ITNs). This study aimed to evaluate the efficacy of low-cost insecticide-treated eave ribbons and sandals as supplementary interventions against indoor-biting and outdoor-biting mosquitoes in south-eastern Tanzania, where ITNs are already widely used. Methods This study was conducted in three villages, with 72 households participating (24 households per village). The households were divided into four study arms and assigned: transfluthrin-treated sandals (TS), transfluthrin-treated eave ribbons (TER), a combination of TER and TS, or experimental controls. Each arm had 18 households, and all households received new ITNs. Mosquitoes were collected using double net traps (to assess outdoor biting), CDC light traps (to assess indoor biting), and Prokopack aspirators (to assess indoor resting). Protection provided by the interventions was evaluated by comparing mosquito densities between the treatment and control arms. Additional tests were done in experimental huts to assess the mortality of wild mosquitoes exposed to the treatments or controls. Results TERs reduced indoor-biting, indoor-resting and outdoor-biting Anopheles arabiensis by 60%, 73% and 41%, respectively, while TS reduced the densities by 18%, 40% and 42%, respectively. When used together, TER & TS reduced indoor-biting, indoor-resting and outdoor-biting An. arabiensis by 53%, 67% and 57%, respectively. Protection against Anopheles funestus ranged from 42 to 69% with TER and from 57 to 74% with TER & TS combined. Mortality of field-collected mosquitoes exposed to TER, TS or both interventions was 56–78% for An. arabiensis and 47–74% for An. funestus. Conclusion Transfluthrin-treated eave ribbons and sandals or their combination can offer significant household-level protection against malaria vectors. Their efficacy is magnified by the transfluthrin-induced mortality, which was observed despite the prevailing pyrethroid resistance in the study area. These results suggest that TER and TS could be useful supplementary tools against residual malaria transmission in areas where ITN coverage is high but additional protection is needed against early-evening and outdoor-biting mosquitoes. Further research is needed to validate the performance of these tools in different settings, and assess their long-term effectiveness and feasibility for malaria control.

Abstract Background In 2015, a China-UK-Tanzania tripartite pilot project was implemented in southeastern Tanzania to explore a new model for reducing malaria burden and possibly scaling-out the approach into other malaria-endemic countries. The 1,7-malaria Reactive Community-based Testing and Response (1,7-mRCTR) which is a locally-tailored approach for reporting febrile malaria cases in endemic villages was developed to stop transmission and Plasmodium life-cycle. The (1,7-mRCTR) utilizes existing health facility data and locally trained community health workers to conduct community-level testing and treatment. Methods The pilot project was implemented from September 2015 to June 2018 in Rufiji District, southern Tanzania. The study took place in four wards, two with low incidence and two with a higher incidence. One ward of each type was selected for each of the control and intervention arms. The control wards implemented the existing Ministry of Health programmes. The 1,7-mRCTR activities implemented in the intervention arm included community testing and treatment of malaria infection. Malaria case-to-suspect ratios at health facilities (HF) were aggregated by villages, weekly to identify the village with the highest ratio. Community-based mobile test stations (cMTS) were used for conducting mass testing and treatment. Baseline (pre) and endline (post) household surveys were done in the control and intervention wards to assess the change in malaria prevalence measured by the interaction term of ‘time’ (post vs pre) and arm in a logistic model. A secondary analysis also studied the malaria incidence reported at the HFs during the intervention. Results Overall the 85 rounds of 1,7-mRCTR conducted in the intervention wards significantly reduced the odds of malaria infection by 66% (adjusted OR 0.34, 95% CI 0.26,0.44, p

Abstract Background Outdoor and early evening mosquito biting needs to be addressed if malaria elimination is to be achieved. While indoor-targeted interventions, such as insecticide-treated nets and indoor residual spraying, remain essential, complementary approaches that tackle persisting outdoor transmission are urgently required to maximize the impact. Major malaria vectors principally bite human hosts around the feet and ankles. Consequently, this study investigated whether sandals treated with efficacious spatial repellents can protect against outdoor biting mosquitoes. Methodology Sandals affixed with hessian bands measuring 48 cm2 treated with 0.06 g, 0.10 g and 0.15 g of transfluthrin were tested in large cage semi-field and full field experiments. Sandals affixed with hessian bands measuring 240 cm2 and treated with 0.10 g and 0.15 g of transfluthrin were also tested semi field experiments. Human landing catches (HLC) were used to assess reduction in biting exposure by comparing proportions of mosquitoes landing on volunteers wearing treated and untreated sandals. Sandals were tested against insectary reared Anopheles arabiensis mosquitoes in semi-field experiments and against wild mosquito species in rural Tanzania. Results In semi-field tests, sandals fitted with hessian bands measuring 48 cm2 and treated with 0.15 g, 0.10 g and 0.06 g transfluthrin reduced mosquito landings by 45.9%, (95% confidence interval (C.I.) 28–59%), 61.1% (48–71%), and 25.9% (9–40%), respectively compared to untreated sandals. Sandals fitted with hessian bands measuring 240 cm2 and treated with 0.15 g and 0.10 g transfluthrin reduced mosquito landings by 59% (43–71%) and 64% (48–74%), respectively. In field experiments, sandals fitted with hessian bands measuring 48 cm2 and treated with 0.15 g transfluthrin reduced mosquito landings by 70% (60–76%) against Anopheles gambiae sensu lato, and 66.0% (59–71%) against all mosquito species combined. Conclusion Transfluthrin-treated sandals conferred significant protection against mosquito bites in semi-field and field settings. Further evaluation is recommended for this tool as a potential complementary intervention against malaria. This intervention could be particularly useful for protecting against outdoor exposure to mosquito bites. Additional studies are necessary to optimize treatment techniques and substrates, establish safety profiles and determine epidemiological impact in different settings.

Background Understanding mosquito biting behaviours is important for designing and evaluating protection methods against nuisance biting and mosquito-borne diseases (e.g. dengue, malaria and zika). We investigated the preferred biting sites by Aedes aegypti and Anopheles arabiensis on adult volunteers in standing or sleeping positions; and estimated the theoretical protection limits affordable from protective clothing or repellent-treated footwear. Methods Adult volunteers dressed in shorts and t-shirts were exposed to infection-free laboratory-reared mosquitoes inside screened chambers from 6am to noon (for day-biting Ae. aegypti) or 6pm to midnight (night-biting An. arabiensis). Attempted bites on different body parts were recorded. Comparative observations were made on same volunteers while wearing sandals treated with transfluthrin, a vapour-phase pyrethroid that kills and repels mosquitoes. Results An. arabiensis bites were mainly on the lower limbs of standing volunteers (95.9% of bites below the knees) but evenly-distributed over all exposed body surfaces when the volunteers were on sleeping positions (only 28.8% bites below knees). Ae. aegypti bites were slightly concentrated on lower limbs of standing volunteers (47.7% below knees), but evenly-distributed on sleeping volunteers (23.3% below knees). Wearing protective clothing that leave only hands and head uncovered (e.g. socks + trousers + long-sleeved shirts) could theoretically prevent 78–83% of bites during sleeping, and at least 90% of bites during non-sleeping hours. If the feet are also exposed, protection declines to as low as 36.3% against Anopheles. The experiments showed that transfluthrin-treated sandals reduced An. arabiensis by 54–86% and Ae. aegypti by 32–39%, but did not change overall distributions of bites. Conclusion Biting by An. arabiensis and Ae. aegypti occur mainly on the lower limbs, though this proclivity is less pronounced in the Aedes species. However, when hosts are on sleeping positions, biting by both species is more evenly-distributed over the exposed body surfaces. High personal protection might be achieved by simply wearing long-sleeved clothing, though protection against Anopheles particularly requires covering of feet and lower legs. The transfluthrin-treated footwear can reduce biting risk, especially by An. arabiensis. These findings could inform the design and use of personal protection tools (both insecticidal and non-insecticidal) against mosquitoes and mosquito-borne diseases.

Abstract Background During the past six decades, remarkable success on malaria control has been made in China. The major experience could be shared with other malaria endemic countries including Tanzania with high malaria burden. Especially, China’s 1–3-7 model for malaria elimination is one of the most important refined experiences from many years’ efforts and key innovation measures for malaria elimination in China. Methods The China-UK-Tanzania pilot project on malaria control was implemented from April, 2015 to June, 2018, which was an operational research with two communities receiving the proposed interventions and two comparable communities serving as control sites. The World Health Organization “Test, Treat, Track” (WHO-T3) Initiative, which calls for every suspected case to receive a diagnostic test, every confirmed case to be treated, and for the disease to be tracked, was integrated with Chinese experiences on malaria control and elimination for exploration of a proper model tailored to the local settings. Application of China’s 1–3-7 model integrating with WHO-T3 initiative and local resources aiming at reducing the burden of malaria in terms of morbidity and mortality by 30% in the intervention communities in comparison with that at the baseline survey. Discussion The China-UK-Tanzania pilot project on malaria control was that at China's first pilot project on malaria control in Africa, exploring the feasibility of Chinese experiences by China-Africa collaboration, which is expected that the strategies and approaches used in this project could be potential for scaling up in Tanzania and African countries, and contribute to the acceleration of malaria control and elimination in Africa.

BACKGROUND:The frequency and magnitude of dengue epidemics has increased dramatically throughout the tropics in the past 40 years due to unplanned urbanization, globalization and lack of effective mosquito control. The commercial capital of Tanzania, Dar es Salaam, is now experiencing regular dengue outbreaks. Three dengue serotypes have been detected in Dar es Salaam (DNV 1, 2 and 3). Without adequate vector monitoring and control, further outbreaks will certainly occur. METHODS/FINDINGS:A case series study followed 97 individuals with confirmed dengue fever (NS1 and/or IgM on rapid diagnostic test and/or PCR positive) to their households in Kinondoni, Dar es Salaam during the 2014 outbreak from a random sample of 202 confirmed cases at Mwananyamala Hospital. Kinondoni wards of Manzese, Mwananyamala, Tandale and Mabibo had the highest number of confirmed cases: 18, 13, 13 and 9 respectively. Individuals were interviewed by questionnaire on dengue prevention practices and houses were inspected for mosquito breeding sites to validate a Habitat Suitability Score (HSS). This is a tool devised to predict the productivity of any potential breeding habitats (PBHs) before the rains begin. There were 12 /312 positive Aedes breeding habitats. Drums/barrels, flowerpots and tyres were the most common breeding habitats. The HSS correctly identified 9/12 of Aedes breeding habitats. Larviciding is already conducted in urban Tanzania for malaria control and the HSS may be a useful means to train individuals on productive Aedes aegypti breeding sites should this program be extended to include dengue control. The population remains poorly informed about dengue transmission and prevention: 22% of respondents said dengue is spread from one person to another and 60% first heard about dengue when already sick. Less than 20% of respondents used personal protection and >80% thought bednets protected against dengue. Mobile phones were owned by almost all individuals followed up and have the potential of being the prime medium for dissemination of information on dengue prevention.

Abstract Background Malaria is an important public health problem in Tanzania. The latest national malaria data suggests rebound of the disease in the country. Anopheles arabiensis, a mosquito species renowned for its resilience against existing malaria vector control measures has now outnumbered the endophagic and anthrophilic Anopheles gambiae sensu stricto as the dominant vector. Vector control measures, prophylaxis and case management with artemisinin-based combination therapy (ACT) are the main control interventions. This paper presents and discusses the main findings from a baseline household survey that was conducted to determine malaria parasite prevalence and associated risk exposures prior to piloting the T3-initiative of World Health Organization integrated with Chinese malaria control experience aimed at additional reduction of malaria in the area. Methods The study was conducted from 4 sub-district divisions in Rufiji District, southern Tanzania: Ikwiriri, Kibiti, Bungu, and Chumbi. Malaria transmission is endemic in the area. It involved 2000 households that were randomly selected from a list of all households that had been registered from the area. Residents in sampled households were interviewed on a range of questions that included use of long-lasting insecticidal nets (LLINs) the night prior to the interview and indicators of socio-economic status. Blood drops were also collected on blood slides that were examined for malaria parasites using microscopes. Results The study observed an average malaria parasite prevalence of 13% across the selected site. Its distribution was 5.6, 12.8, 16.7, and 18% from Ikwiriri, Kibiti, Bungu, and Chumbi wards, respectively. The corresponding LLIN use discovered were 57.5% over the district. The highest usage was observed from Ikwiriri at 69.6% and the lowest from Bungu at 46.3%. A statistically significant variation in parasitaemia between socio-economic quintiles was observed from the study. Males were more parasitaemic than females (p value = 0.000). Discussion and conclusion The findings have been discussed in the light of results from Tanzania Demographic and Health Survey-Malaria Indicator Survey, 2015–2016 and other related studies, together with goals and targets set for malaria control. The paper also discusses the observed parasitaemia in relation to reported LLIN use and its distribution by some important factors as they were explored from the study. It has been concluded that malaria burden is now concentrated on the fringes of the settlements where the poorest section of the population is concentrated and LLIN usage is lower than the national average and targets set by national and global malaria control initiatives.