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Abstract Microbiome assembly critically impacts the ability of hosts to access beneficial symbiont functions. Fungus-farming termites have co-evolved with a fungal cultivar as a primary food source and complex gut microbiomes, which collectively perform complementary degradation of plant biomass. A large subset of the bacterial community residing within termite guts are inherited (vertically transmitted) from parental colonies, while the fungal symbiont is, in most termite species, acquired from the environment (horizontally transmitted). It has remained unknown how the gut microbiota sustains incipient colonies prior to the acquisition of the fungal cultivar, and how, if at all, bacterial contributions are modulated by fungus garden establishment. Here, we test the latter by determining the composition and predicted functions of the gut microbiome using metabarcoding and shotgun metagenomics, respectively. We focus our functional predictions on bacterial carbohydrate-active enzyme and nitrogen cycling genes and verify compositional patterns of the former through enzyme activity assays. Our findings reveal that the vast majority of microbial functions are encoded in the inherited microbiome, and that the establishment of fungal gardens incurs only minor modulations of predicted bacterial capacities for carbohydrate and nitrogen metabolism. While we cannot rule out that other symbiont functions are gained post-fungus garden establishment, our findings suggest that fungus-farming termite hosts are equipped with a near-complete set of gut microbiome functions at the earliest stages of colony life. This inherited, incipient bacterial microbiome likely contributes to the high extent of functional specificity and coevolution observed between termite hosts, gut microbiomes, and the fungal cultivar.

Fungus-growing termite (FGT) nests possess an oxalate pool derived from termite input and fungal oxalogenesis. The effect of oxalate biotransformation in the termite nest on the symbiotic association between FGTs and Termitomyces fungi is poorly understood. Here, we measured the pH value, mineral composition, oxalate and carbonate contents, along with the abundance and composition of oxalotrophic bacteria (OxB) in termite nests. The results showed the community structures of OxB in different parts of the termite nest across fungus comb, termite nest wall and surface soil, were significantly different. The diversity of OxB in the fungus comb was significantly lower than that in the termite nest wall and surface soil. Results also showed the abundance of OxB in the fungus comb was higher than that in the termite nest wall and significantly lower than that in the surface soil. In addition, we isolated and screened an oxalotrophic bacterium Methylobacterium sp. TA1 from the fungus comb, which can degrade calcium oxalate and convert it into calcite. Our results from the perspective of oxalate biodegradation and transformation show that the oxalate-carbonate pathway driven by OxB in active termite nests can maintain stable microecological environments in termite nests and is beneficial to the symbiotic association between FGTs and Termitomyces.

Termites—one of the most abundant animal groups in tropical ecosystems—are vital in nutrient recycling, contributing significantly to maintaining ecosystem functioning. However, how selective they are in their litter food choice, and whether they prefer nutritious or less nutritious litter substrates, are still important unresolved questions.Here, we test the effect of litter traits on the removal of litter by fungus‐growing termites, a dominant group of macrodetritivores in the Serengeti‐Mara ecosystem. We used metal‐mesh litterbags to measure the mass loss of stem and leaf litter from 23 grass species after an incubation period of 61 days.Sheeting—soil deposits indicating termite presence—strongly increased with tannin and phenolic compounds, especially in leaf litter (R2 = 0.54), where highly aromatic species like Cymbopogon caesius and Bothriochloa insculpta exhibited the highest sheeting rates. Litterbags with sheeting displayed 66% higher mass loss on average compared to those without. Once termites had selected the substrate, mass loss increased consistently irrespective of litter traits.Quantifying the combined effects of sheeting frequency and differential mass loss, we found that fungus‐growing termites predominantly increased the mass loss of high‐nutrient litter. This was mainly due to additional mass loss in leaf litter, not stem litter, with tannin concentration being the primary predictor of enhanced overall decomposition by termites. This suggests termites ameliorate the otherwise adverse influence of plant secondary compounds on litter decomposition.Synthesis: Our results support the idea that fungus‐growing termites are generalists, as termites collected organic substrates with varying quality. The strong effect of phenolic compounds on sheeting rate implies that secondary compounds play an important role in termite substrate selection. The selective removal of substrates high in secondary compounds suggests fungus‐growing termites lift important constraints to microbial breakdown, potentially enhancing ecosystem‐level carbon and nutrient recycling rates. Termites play crucial roles in recycling organic matter across tropical biomes and our study highlights that the role of secondary compounds in their selection and detection in decomposition studies needs more attention [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Microbiome assembly critically impacts the ability of hosts to access beneficial symbiont functions. Fungus-farming termites have co-evolved with a fungal cultivar as a primary food source and complex gut microbiomes, which collectively perform complementary degradation of plant biomass. A large subset of the bacterial community residing within termite guts are inherited (vertically transmitted) from parental colonies, while the fungal symbiont is, in most termite species, acquired from the environment (horizontally transmitted). It has remained unknown how the gut microbiota sustains incipient colonies prior to the acquisition of the fungal cultivar, and how, if at all, bacterial contributions are modulated by fungus garden establishment. Here, we test the latter by determining the composition and predicted functions of the gut microbiome using metabarcoding and shotgun metagenomics, respectively. We focus our functional predictions on bacterial carbohydrate-active enzyme and nitrogen cycling genes and verify compositional patterns of the former through enzyme activity assays. Our findings reveal that the vast majority of microbial functions are encoded in the inherited microbiome, and that the establishment of fungal gardens incurs only minor modulations of predicted bacterial capacities for carbohydrate and nitrogen metabolism. While we cannot rule out that other symbiont functions are gained post-fungus garden establishment, our findings suggest that fungus-farming termite hosts are equipped with a near-complete set of gut microbiome functions at the earliest stages of colony life. This inherited, incipient bacterial microbiome likely contributes to the high extent of functional specificity and coevolution observed between termite hosts, gut microbiomes, and the fungal cultivar. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fungus-growing termite (FGT) nests possess an oxalate pool derived from termite input and fungal oxalogenesis. The effect of oxalate biotransformation in the termite nest on the symbiotic association between FGTs and Termitomyces fungi is poorly understood. Here, we measured the pH value, mineral composition, oxalate and carbonate contents, along with the abundance and composition of oxalotrophic bacteria (OxB) in termite nests. The results showed the community structures of OxB in different parts of the termite nest across fungus comb, termite nest wall and surface soil, were significantly different. The diversity of OxB in the fungus comb was significantly lower than that in the termite nest wall and surface soil. Results also showed the abundance of OxB in the fungus comb was higher than that in the termite nest wall and significantly lower than that in the surface soil. In addition, we isolated and screened an oxalotrophic bacterium Methylobacterium sp. TA1 from the fungus comb, which can degrade calcium oxalate and convert it into calcite. Our results from the perspective of oxalate biodegradation and transformation show that the oxalate-carbonate pathway driven by OxB in active termite nests can maintain stable microecological environments in termite nests and is beneficial to the symbiotic association between FGTs and Termitomyces. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wild edible Termitomyces mushrooms are popular in Southwest China and umami is important flavor qualities of edible mushrooms. This study aimed to understand the umami taste of Termitomyces intermedius and Termitomyces aff. bulborhizus. Ten umami peptides from aqueous extracts were separated using a Sephadex G-15 gel filtration chromatography. The intense umami fraction was evaluated by both sensory evaluation and electronic tongue. They were identified as KLNDAQAPK, DSTDEKFLR, VGKGAHLSGEH, MLKKKKLA, SLGFGGPPGY, TVATFSSSTKPDD, AMDDDEADLLLLAM, VEDEDEKPKEK, SPEEKKEEET and PEGADKPNK. Seven peptides, except VEDEDEKPKEK，SPEEKKEEET and PEGADKPNK were selectively synthesized to verify their taste characteristics. All these 10 peptides had umami or salt taste. The 10 peptides were conducted by molecular docking to study their interaction with identified peptides and the umami taste receptor T1R1/T1R3. All these 10 peptides perfectly docked the active residues in the T1R3 subunit. Our results provide theoretical basis for the umami taste and address the umami mechanism of two wild edible Termitomyces mushrooms.

The fungus-growing termite is considered a distinct ecological niche because it involves a tripartite symbiosis between the termite host, gut microflora, and the in vitro fungus Termitomyces, which has led to the expansion of highly organized and complex societies among termite colonies. Tripartite symbiosis in fungus-growing termites may promote unique microbes with distinctive metabolic pathways that may serve as valuable resources for developing novel antimicrobial therapeutic options. Recent research on complex tripartite symbioses has revealed a plethora of previously unknown natural products that may have ecological roles in signaling, communication, or defense responses. Natural products produced by symbionts may act as crucial intermediaries between termites and their pathogens by providing direct protection through their biological activities. Herein, we review the state-of-the-art research on both microbes and natural products originated from fungus-growing termite tripartite symbiosis, highlighting the diversity of microbes and the uniqueness of natural product classes and their bioactivities. Additionally, we emphasize future research prospects on fungus-growing termite related microorganisms, with a particular focus on their potential roles in bioactive product discovery.

Background: Tyrosinase is a polyphenol oxidase, one of the globally attracted enzymes for its multi‐mechanistic approaches in various fields such as pharma, food, environment, medicine, and agriculture. Tyrosinase from natural nutritive edible mushrooms gained more attention for their rich levels and inexpensive nature. Our previous work has revealed that mushroom tyrosinase has strong similarities in structure and function with that of skin tyrosinase, which has significance as a skin tumor marker. Besides, mushrooms are a richer source of antioxidants. However, it is imperative to analyze all the available varieties of mushrooms for bioactive potentials like tyrosinase and antioxidant levels. Thus, the main goal of the study was to identify the variety of mushrooms that can be selected for continuous multiplication and propagation as a viable source for tyrosinase, which can be employed to screen tyrosinase inhibitors as skin tumor inhibitors. Results: Of the 18 varieties screened for tyrosinase levels, Boletus edulis, Termitomyces hemii, and Termitomyces mummiformis had high levels of tyrosinase and exhibited potent hydrogen peroxide and nitric oxide scavenging activity as well as DNA protection. The potent DNA and antioxidant abilities appear to be due to the enriched levels of hydroxybenzoates. Conclusion: The current study could provide an economic source of tyrosinase (mushrooms) that can be used to monitor tyrosinase inhibitors, a potent component that enables their use against skin cancer. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Macrotermitine termites have domesticated fungi in the genus Termitomyces as their primary food source using predigested plant biomass. To access the full nutritional value of lignin-enriched plant biomass, the termite-fungus symbiosis requires the depolymerization of this complex phenolic polymer. While most previous work suggests that lignocellulose degradation is accomplished predominantly by the fungal cultivar, our current understanding of the underlying biomolecular mechanisms remains rudimentary. Here, we provide conclusive omics and activity-based evidence that Termitomyces employs not only a broad array of carbohydrate-active enzymes (CAZymes) but also a restricted set of oxidizing enzymes (manganese peroxidase, dye decolorization peroxidase, an unspecific peroxygenase, laccases, and aryl-alcohol oxidases) and Fenton chemistry for biomass degradation. We propose for the first time that Termitomyces induces hydroquinone-mediated Fenton chemistry (Fe2+ + H2O2 + H+ → Fe3+ + •OH + H2O) using a herein newly described 2-methoxy-1,4-dihydroxybenzene (2-MH2Q, compound 19)-based electron shuttle system to complement the enzymatic degradation pathways. This study provides a comprehensive depiction of how efficient biomass degradation by means of this ancient insects agricultural symbiosis is accomplished. IMPORTANCE Fungus-growing termites have optimized the decomposition of recalcitrant plant biomass to access valuable nutrients by engaging in a tripartite symbiosis with complementary contributions from a fungal mutualist and a codiversified gut microbiome. This complex symbiotic interplay makes them one of the most successful and important decomposers for carbon cycling in Old World ecosystems. To date, most research has focused on the enzymatic contributions of microbial partners to carbohydrate decomposition. Here, we provide genomic, transcriptomic, and enzymatic evidence that Termitomyces also employs redox mechanisms, including diverse ligninolytic enzymes and a Fenton chemistry-based hydroquinone-catalyzed lignin degradation mechanism, to break down lignin-rich plant material. Insights into these efficient decomposition mechanisms reveal new sources of efficient ligninolytic agents applicable for energy generation from renewable sources.

Mushroom biodiversity covers some indispensable non-timber forest products that are wide-spread in Africa, although these resources are currently underutilized, underdeveloped, and left to face the vagaries of climate change and human activities unmanaged. The mushrooms of Eastern Africa have barely been identified or examined for their potential to better the livelihood of the inhabitants. This review of published-online-only literature was carried out to systematically document this biodiversity and its potentials. There were 135 edible mushrooms, 9 edible+medicine mushrooms, and 59 species with no ascribed uses out of 205 species altogether in Eastern Africa. Two mushrooms were identified as poisonous. There were 32 key edible mushrooms in Eastern Africa based on their usage. A tally of mushrooms species (based on country where they were sighted) showed that Ethiopia accounted for 96 species, Tanzania (75), Burundi (37), Rwanda (24), Kenya (18), and Uganda (6) while no information was available from the rest of the countries in the region. The most common genera of mushrooms included Termitomyces, Russula, Pleurotus, Marasmius, Lactarius, Coprinus, Cantharellus, Armillaria, Amanita, and Agaricus. While the most popular species (based on consumption by more locations/tribes) were Amanita zambiana, Hypholoma fasciculare (could be poisonous), Pleurotus cystidiosus, Polyporus tenuiculus, Termitomyces letestui, and Termitomyces striatus. However, it was observed that these tribes or locations were often only within a few countries. Therefore, truly regional mushrooms included Schizophyllum commune (could be poisonous), Suillus luteus, Termitomyces clypeatus, Termitomyces striatus, and Termitomyces microcarpus based on their being found in at least three or more countries. Fungi biodiversity conservation is inadequate in the region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

AbstractTermitomyces sp. that grow in symbiosis with fungus-farming Termites have medicinal properties. However, they are rare in nature, and their artificial culture is challenging. The expression of AXL receptor tyrosine kinase and immune checkpoint molecules favor the growth of cancer cells. The study evaluated the optimal conditions for the artificial culture of Termitomyces and their inhibitory activity on AXL and immune checkpoint molecules in lung adenocarcinoma and melanoma cell lines. The culture of 45 strains of Termitomyces was compared. Five strains with marked growth rates were selected. Four of the selected strains form a single cluster by sequence analysis. The mycelium of 4 selected strains produces more fungal mass in potato dextrose broth than in a mixed media. The bark was the most appropriate solid substrate for Termitomyces mycelia culture. The mycelium of all five selected strains showed a higher growth rate under normal CO2 conditions. The culture broth, methanol, and ethyl acetate of one selected strain (T-120) inhibited the mRNA relative expression of AXL receptor tyrosine kinase and immune checkpoint molecules in cancer cell lines. Overall, these results suggest the potential usefulness of Termitomyces extracts as a co-adjuvant therapy in malignant diseases.

Fungus-farming termite colonies maintain monoculture fungus combs in underground chambers without apparent problems with diseases. Multiple lines of defense contribute to the suppression or removal of antagonists of the symbiosis, but the role of the termite-manipulated environment within mounds has yet to be tested. Specifically, termite mounds have extremely high levels of CO2 compared to atmospheric levels. We tested the effect of 5% CO2 on the growth of fungal crops from Macrotermes bellicosus colonies, generalist fungi that could challenge the symbiosis, as well as a specialist stowaway fungus, Pseudoxylaria. For sporulating fungi, we also quantified the effects on conidia production. We found that elevated CO2 significantly reduces mycelial growth and conidia production of the generalist fungi Aspergillus sp., Beauveria bassiana, and Metarhizium brunneum, whereas it overall had a net positive effect on the growth of the fungal crop Termitomyces and Pseudoxylaria; albeit, with variation between fungal strains within genera. Our findings point to elevated CO2 being of adaptive significance to the fungus-farming termite symbiosis as an additional layer of defense that helps keep termite fungus gardens free from fungal infections. The mound-building activities that make termites ecosystem engineers may thus also generate environmental conditions that impact the fate of fungi inhabiting the extended phenotypes that massive termite mounds represent.

Fungus‐growing termites cultivate the fungal mutualist Termitomyces as their main food source; however, how fungus‐growing termites protect Termitomyces from threats is still unclear. In this study, we investigated the actinobacterial communities in Odontotermes formosanus individuals and their fungal combs.Moreover, the antifungal activities of the isolated actinobacteria were tested. 16 S rRNA gene sequencing results indicated that the actinobacteria in O. formosanus and its fungal combs belong to 5 classes, 17 orders, 40 families, and 84 genera.The relative abundance of Coriobacteriia in the nymphs, young workers, old workers, and soldiers was higher than that in the queens and fungal combs, and the relative abundance of class Actinobacteria in the queens and the fungal combs was higher than that in the nymphs, young workers, old workers, and soldiers.Based on antifungal bioassays, 3 strains of Amycolatopsis and 2 strains of Streptomyces isolated from old workers had strong inhibitory activity against Xylaria angulosa but weak inhibitory activity against Termitomyces sp.These results indicated that the actinobacteria of O. formosanus may contribute to protecting termite fungal food via their asymmetric antifungal activities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Termitomyces sp. is an edible fungal species commonly found in tropical forests in Africa and Southeast Asia. It is consumed as an immunomodulatory agent to enhance the immune system. This study explored the hematological profile of ethyl acetate extract of fungus comb(EAEFC) on mice's inflammatory response induced by intraperitoneally-injected lipopolysaccharide. Methods: An experimental study with a post-test-only control group design using BALB/C mice(n = 24, bodyweight/BW:25-30 grams) was conducted. The animals were randomly allocated into 4 groups, each consisting of 6 mice, and received substance(s) via gavage. Groups I and III received 5% Dimethyl Sulfoxide(DMSO) in water, groups II and IV received 500mg/kg BW EAEFC in 5% DMSO. On day 15, Group I and II were injected intraperitoneally with 5 ml/kg BW saline, whereas Group III and IV with 10 mg/kg BW lipopolysaccharide(LPS) in 5 ml/kg BW saline. After three hours, the mice were sacrificed; their blood was collected, and a hematological profile was observed. The results were displayed as mean ± standard deviation (SD), and the differences between groups were statistically analyzed using one-way ANOVA. The non-normally distributed data were analyzed using Kruskal-Wallis followed by Man-Whitney U test. Results: Peripheral blood study revealed that the levels of leukocyte count from the EAEFC group(group II) increased significantly when compared to the negative control(group I). Group IV had higher granulocyte and lower lymphocyte percentages than group III, suggesting the potential inflammation-regulating effect of EAEFC, while there is no marked difference in group I and II without LPS-induced inflammatory response. Conclusion: Results indicated that EAEFC altered leukocyte responses when the inflammation occurred. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Termitomyces pakistanensis sp. nov. is a member of an edible genus generally distributed in Asia and Europe. This species has been described as new species based on its different morphology, and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) of basidiospores. The novelty and degree of endemism is confirmed by analyzing the genetic variation of the internal transcribed spacer regions (ITS1–5.8 S–ITS2) of the ribosomal DNA gene, a universal fungal marker. The evolutionary affinities of new species is also evaluated with Asian and European species by phylogenetic analysis based on ITS sequences. In our phylogenetic analysis, this genus is found monophyletic comprising of two monophyletic sub clades: Clade I, Microcarpus, with small sized fruiting bodies generally less than 5 cm without pseudorrhiza and Clade II, Macrocarpus, with large sized fruiting bodies generally more than 5 cm having pseudorrhiza. All collections of Pakistani species clustered independently in Microcarpus clade showing their endemic genetic makeup as it is clustering independently. A comprehensive description, photographs of the basidiocarps and Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) micrographs of spores are provided. Research Highlights: It has a new species from Pakistan to world based on the scanning electron microscopy and further confirmed by DNA barcoding.The exact shape and size of basidiospores of this novel species is first time introduced by using SEM analysis.This genus is rarely described from Pakistan.This paper has introduced a two clade, Microcarpus and macrocarpus, in the world for this genus. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mushrooms have been considered an important part of human life due to their various benefits and potential. In Indonesia, many indigenous people get used to foraging and using wild mushrooms as part of their daily lives. To date, there was no update following prior local name checklist of wild mushroom and their uses in Indonesia. Thus, this review aims to provide the latest work on that information known so far in the country. A literature review was focusing on available publications containing the local names and the use of wild mushrooms in Indonesia. 107 mushrooms in total are known to have 170 local names with 36 of them having more than 1 indigenous name. Some of them: Coprinus spp., Polyporus spp., Schizophyllum commune, Scleroderma spp., Termitomyces spp., and Trametes spp. are known to have 5 local names for each region and ethnicity that uses them. 50 species of mushrooms in total are used as food and traditional medicine. The information was derived from 8 provinces and 8 tribes, of which West Kalimantan Province and Javanese ethnicity contributed to the highest number of it. The number of local names is expected to increase as more investigations are conducted in the near future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Termites have co-evolved with a complex gut microbiota consisting mostly of exclusive resident taxa, but key forces sustaining this exclusive partnership are still poorly understood. The potential for primary reproductives to vertically transmit their gut microbiota (mycobiome and bacteriome) to offspring was investigated using colony foundations from field-derived swarming alates of Macrotermes subhyalinus. Metabarcoding based on the fungal internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region and the bacterial 16S rRNA gene was used to characterize the reproductives mycobiome and bacteriome over the colony foundation time. The mycobiome of swarming alates differed from that of workers of Macrotermitinae and changed randomly within and between sampling time points, highlighting no close link with the gut habitat. The fungal ectosymbiont Termitomyces was lost early from the gut of reproductives, confirming the absence of vertical transmission to offspring. Unlike fungi, the bacteriome of alates mirrored that of workers of Macroterminae. Key genera and core OTUs inherited from the mother colony mostly persisted in the gut of reproductive until the emergence of workers, enabling their vertical transmission and explaining why they were found in offspring workers. These findings demonstrate that the parental transmission may greatly contribute to the maintenance of the bacteriome and its co-evolution with termite hosts at short time scales.

ABSTRACT Fungus-growing termites are efficient in degrading and digesting plant substrates, achieved through the engagement of symbiotic gut microbiota and lignocellulolytic Termitomyces fungi cultivated for protein-rich food. Insights into where specific plant biomass components are targeted during the decomposition process are sparse. In this study, we performed several analytical approaches on the fate of plant biomass components and did amplicon sequencing of the 16S rRNA gene to investigate the lignocellulose digestion in the symbiotic system of the fungus-growing termite Odontotermes formosanus (Shiraki) and to compare bacterial communities across the different stages in the degradation process. We observed a gradual reduction of lignocellulose components throughout the process. Our findings support that the digestive tract of young workers initiates the degradation of lignocellulose but leaves most of the lignin, hemicellulose, and cellulose, which enters the fresh fungus comb, where decomposition primarily occurs. We found a high diversity and quantity of monomeric sugars in older parts of the fungus comb, indicating that the decomposition of lignocellulose enriches the old comb with sugars that can be utilized by Termitomyces and termite workers. Amplicon sequencing of the 16S rRNA gene showed clear differences in community composition associated with the different stages of plant biomass decomposition which could work synergistically with Termitomyces to shape the digestion process. IMPORTANCE Fungus-farming termites have a mutualist association with fungi of the genus Termitomyces and gut microbiota to support the nearly complete decomposition of lignocellulose to gain access to nutrients. This elaborate strategy of plant biomass digestion makes them ecologically successful dominant decomposers in (sub)tropical Old World ecosystems. We employed acid detergent fiber analysis, high-performance anion-exchange chromatography (HPAEC), high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), X-ray diffraction (XRD), pyrolysis gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (Py-GC-MS), and amplicon sequencing of the 16S rRNA gene to examine which lignocellulose components were digested and which bacteria were abundant throughout the decomposition process. Our findings suggest that although the first gut passage initiates lignocellulose digestion, the most prominent decomposition occurs within the fungus comb. Moreover, distinct bacterial communities were associated with different stages of decomposition, potentially contributing to the breakdown of particular plant components.

Four new genera encompassing six new species are described in the Lyophyllaceae (Agaricales): the monotypic Australocybe from Australia; the monotypic Phaeotephrocybe from Belize; the monotypic Nigrocarnea from Laos containing the novel conidia-producing species N. radicata and Praearthromyces containing two Asian taxa, the conidia-producing P. corneri known from Malaysia and Singapore and P. griseus from Thailand, which lacks conidial production. In addition, we describe Arthromyces glabriceps, which is the first species in the genus Arthromyces that lacks conidial production on the basidiome. Alternative options for a classification of these lyophylloid taxa are discussed and based on morphological, ecological and biogeographical considerations rejected. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Insects that farm monocultures of fungi are canonical examples of nutritional symbiosis as well as independent evolution of agriculture in non-human animals. But just like in human agriculture, these fungal crops face constant threat of invasion by weeds which, if unchecked, take over the crop fungus. In fungus-growing termites, the crop fungus (Termitomyces) faces such challenges from the weedy fungus Pseudoxylaria. The mechanism by which Pseudoxylaria is suppressed is not known. However, evidence suggests that some bacterial secondary symbionts can serve as defensive mutualists by preventing the growth of Pseudoxylaria. However, such secondary symbionts must possess the dual, yet contrasting, capabilities of suppressing the weedy fungus while keeping the growth of the crop fungus unaffected. This study describes the isolation, identification, and culture-dependent estimation of the roles of several such putative defensive mutualists from the colonies of the wide-spread fungus-growing termite from India, Odontotermes obesus. From the 38 bacterial cultures tested, a strain of Pseudomonas showed significantly greater suppression of the weedy fungus than the crop fungus. Moreover, a 16S rRNA pan-microbiome survey, using the Nanopore platform, revealed Pseudomonas to be a part of the core microbiota of O. obesus. A meta-analysis of microbiota composition across different species of Odontotermes also confirms the widespread prevalence of Pseudomonas within this termite. These lines of evidence indicate that Pseudomonas could be playing the role of defensive mutualist within Odontotermes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fungus‐growing termites and their symbiotic Termitomyces fungi are critically important carbon and nutrient recyclers in arid and semiarid environments of sub‐Saharan Africa. A major proportion of plant litter produced in these ecosystems is decomposed within nest chambers of termite mounds, where temperature and humidity are kept optimal for the fungal symbionts. While fungus‐growing termites are generally believed to exploit a wide range of different plant substrates, the actual diets of most species remain elusive. We studied dietary niches of two Macrotermes species across the semiarid savanna landscape in the Tsavo Ecosystem, southern Kenya, based on carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) stable isotopes in Termitomyces fungus combs. We applied Bayesian mixing models to determine the proportion of grass and woody plant matter in the combs, these being the two major food sources available for Macrotermes species in the region. Our results showed that both termite species, and colonies cultivating different Termitomyces fungi, occupied broad and largely overlapping isotopic niches, indicating no dietary specialization. Including laser scanning derived vegetation cover estimates to the dietary mixing model revealed that the proportion of woody plant matter in fungus combs increased with increasing woody plant cover in the nest surroundings. Nitrogen content of fungus combs was positively correlated with woody plant cover around the mounds and negatively correlated with the proportion of grass matter in the comb. Considering the high N demand of large Macrotermes colonies, woody plant matter seems to thus represent a more profitable food source than grass. As grass is also utilized by grazing mammals, and the availability of grass matter typically fluctuates over the year, mixed woodland‐grasslands and bushlands seem to represent more favorable habitats for large Macrotermes colonies than open grasslands. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The edible mushroom Termitomyces is an agaric‐type basidiomycete fungus that has a symbiotic relationship with fungus‐growing termites. An understanding of the detailed development mechanisms underlying the adaptive responses of Termitomyces sp. to their growing environment is lacking. Here, we compared the transcriptome sequences of different Termitomyces sp. samples and link‐stipe grown on fungus combs in situ and monocultured in vitro. The assembled reads generated 8052 unigenes. The expression profiles were highly different for 2556 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) of the treated samples, where the expression of 1312 and 1244 DEGs was upregulated in the Mycelium and link‐stipe groups respectively. Functional classification of the DEGs based on both Gene Ontology and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes enrichment analysis revealed an expected shift in fungal gene expression, where stress response genes whose expression was upregulated in link‐stipe may adaptively be involved in cell wall hydrolysis and fusion, pathogenesis, oxidation‐reduction, transporter efflux, transposon efflux and self/non–self‐recognition. Urease has implications in the expression of genes involved in the nitrogen metabolism pathway, and its expression could be controlled by low‐level nitrogen fixation of fungus combs. In addition, the expression patterns of eleven select genes on the basis of qRT‐PCR were consistent with their changes in transcript abundance, as revealed by RNA sequencing. Taken together, these findings may be useful for enriching the knowledge concerning the Termitomyces adaptive response to in situ fungus combs compared with the response of monocultures in vitro. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Background Monoculture farming poses significant disease challenges, but fungus-farming termites are able to successfully keep their monoculture crop free from contamination by other fungi. It has been hypothesised that obligate gut passage of all plant substrate used to manure the fungal symbiont is key to accomplish this. Here we refute this hypothesis in the fungus-farming termite species Macrotermes bellicosus. Results We first used ITS amplicon sequencing to show that plant substrate foraged on by termite workers harbour diverse fungal communities, which potentially could challenge the farming symbiosis. Subsequently, we cultivated fungi from dissected sections of termite guts to show that fungal diversity does not decrease during gut passage. Therefore, we investigated if healthy combs harboured these undesirable fungal genera, and whether the presence of workers affected fungal diversity within combs. Removal of workers led to a surge in fungal diversity in combs, implying that termite defences must be responsible for the near-complete absence of other fungi in functioning termite gardens. Conclusions The rapid proliferation of some of these fungi when colonies are compromised indicates that some antagonists successfully employ a sit-and-wait strategy that allows them to remain dormant until conditions are favourable. Although this strategy requires potentially many years of waiting, it prevents these fungi from engaging in an evolutionary arms race with the termite host, which employs a series of complementary behavioural and chemical defences that may prove insurmountable.

The genus Termitomyces (Lyophyllaceae, Basidiomycota) is often associated with fungus-feeding termites (Macrotermitinae) due to their strong symbiotic relationships. The genus is widely found exclusively in certain regions of Africa and Asia. They are recognized as edible mushroom within Southeast Asia as well. But it is often misidentified based on morphology by the local communities especially in Malaysia for Chlorophyllum molybdites which is a highly poisonous mushroom. Thus, it is necessary to study the genus for Malaysia with the synergy of using both morphological and molecular identification. In this study, we aim to describe another new species as an addition to the genus Termitomyces found within Sabah, Malaysia. We generated two new sequences (nrLSU and mtSSU) for the new species and a total of 28 nrLSU and mtSSU sequences were retrieved from GenBank for the phylogenetic analysis using maximum likelihood and Bayesian inferences. We identified that the new collection from Sabah province is a new species and named as Termitomyces gilvus based on the termites found in the mound. A phylogeny tree made from the concatenated genes of LSU and mtSSU suggests that T. gilvus is closely related to T. bulborhizus from China. According to our results, the combination of molecular and morphology proved to be a robust approach to re-evaluate the taxonomic status of Termitomyces species in Malaysia. Additional surveys are needed to verify the species diversity and clarify their geographic distribution.

ABSTRACT Macrotermitinae termites have domesticated fungi of the genus Termitomyces as food for their colony, analogously to human farmers growing crops. Termites propagate the fungus by continuously blending foraged and predigested plant material with fungal mycelium and spores (fungus comb) within designated subterranean chambers. To test the hypothesis that the obligate fungal symbiont emits specific volatiles (odor) to orchestrate its life cycle and symbiotic relations, we determined the typical volatile emission of fungus comb biomass and Termitomyces nodules, revealing α-pinene, camphene, and d-limonene as the most abundant terpenes. Genome mining of Termitomyces followed by gene expression studies and phylogenetic analysis of putative enzymes related to secondary metabolite production encoded by the genomes uncovered a conserved and specific biosynthetic repertoire across strains. Finally, we proved by heterologous expression and in vitro enzymatic assays that a highly expressed gene sequence encodes a rare bifunctional mono-/sesquiterpene cyclase able to produce the abundant comb volatiles camphene and d-limonene. IMPORTANCE The symbiosis between macrotermitinae termites and Termitomyces is obligate for both partners and is one of the most important contributors to biomass conversion in the Old World tropic’s ecosystems. To date, research efforts have dominantly focused on acquiring a better understanding of the degradative capabilities of Termitomyces to sustain the obligate nutritional symbiosis, but our knowledge of the small-molecule repertoire of the fungal cultivar mediating interspecies and interkingdom interactions has remained fragmented. Our omics-driven chemical, genomic, and phylogenetic study provides new insights into the volatilome and biosynthetic capabilities of the evolutionarily conserved fungal genus Termitomyces, which allows matching metabolites to genes and enzymes and, thus, opens a new source of unique and rare enzymatic transformations.

Fungus-growing termites, like Odontotermes obesus, cultivate Termitomyces as their sole food source on fungus combs which are continuously maintained with foraged plant materials. This necessary augmentation also increases the threat of introducing non-specific fungi capable of displacing Termitomyces. The magnitude of this threat and how termites prevent the invasion of such fungi remain largely unknown. This study identifies these non-specific fungi by establishing the pan-mycobiota of O. obesus from the fungus comb and termite castes. Furthermore, to maximize the identification of such fungi, the mycobiota of the decaying stages of the unattended fungus comb were also assessed. The simultaneous assessment of the microbiota and the mycobiota of these stages identified possible interactions between the fungal and bacterial members of this community. Based on these findings, we propose possible interactions among the crop fungus Termitomyces, the weedy fungus Pseudoxylaria and some bacterial symbiotes. These possibilities were then tested with in vitro interaction assays which suggest that Termitomyces, Pseudoxylaria and certain potential bacterial symbiotes possess anti-fungal capabilities. We propose a multifactorial interaction model of these microbes, under the care of the termites, to explain how their interactions can maintain a predominantly Termitomyces monoculture., (© 2024. The Author(s).)

The Agarics as a group, occurs in a varieties of habitat. Some species exist in areas that are geographically separated, while some are known only from restricted areas and many species do seem to show preference for a certain type of natural habitats as well as for a particular substrate. An extensive exploration of wild mushrooms carried out from 2019 to 2021 at different forest ranges of Achanakmar Biosphere Reserve,Chhattisgarh India. Seven different species of Termitomyces namely Termitomycesclypeatus, T. microcarpus, T. rabuorii, T. streatus, T. radicatus, Termitomyces sp. -1, Termitomyces sp -2, were found in edible form. So far members of the group which are found in soil, dung, plant derbies, independently or in association with particular plant species has minimal documentation and germ-plasm collection from Chhattisgarh state, which is known for the largest forest land and the tribal population. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Acta Edulis Fungi is the property of Acta Edulis Fungi and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The Ophiostomatales (Ascomycota) accommodates more than 300 species characterized by similar morphological adaptations to arthropod dispersal. Most species in this order are wood-inhabiting fungi associated with bark or ambrosia beetles. However, a smaller group of species occur in other niches such as in soil and Protea infructescences. Recent surveys of Termitomyces fungus gardens (fungus combs) of fungus-growing termites led to the discovery of characteristic ophiostomatalean-like fruiting structures. In this study, these ophiostomatalean-like fungi were identified using morphological characteristics, conventional molecular markers, and whole genome sequencing. In addition, the influence of the extracts derived from various parts of Termitomyces combs on the growth of these fungi in culture was considered. Based on phylogenomic analyses, two new genera (Intubia and Chrysosphaeria) were introduced to accommodate these ophiostomatalean species. Phylogenetic analyses revealed that the isolates resided in three well-supported lineages, and these were described as three new species (Intubia macrotermitinarum, I. oerlemansii, and Chrysosphaeria jan-nelii). Culture-based studies showed that these species do not depend on the Termitomyces comb material for growth. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A survey of mushrooms was conducted in Xishuangbanna, Yunnan Province, China, in the rainy season (May to October) of 2012, 2013, and 2014, during which 16 specimens of Termitomyces were collected. Preliminary macro- and micro-characteristics, together with ITS sequence data, showed that four of the specimens belonged to a new species (Termitomyces fragilis), while the other 12 belonged to T. aurantiacus, T. eurrhizus, T. globules, T. microcarpus, and T. bulborhizus. In this paper, T. fragilis is introduced as a species new to science based on morphological characterization and phylogenetic analyses. Macro- and micro- morphological descriptions, color photographs and line drawings of the new species, and a phylogenetic tree to show the placement of the new species are provided. T. fragilis is then compared with other closely related taxa in the genus Termitomyces.

Termitomyces clypeatus is a fungus species, which has been used as food and medicinal mushroom. In the current study, submersed fermentation of the fungus in a stirred-tank bioreactor was determined for its culture biomass and nutrient contents. T. clypeatus obtained its highest biomass after from 13 to 15 days of cultivation, when the dry biomass of its mycelium system was more than 6%. Agitation speeds of 150 or 180 rpm were the most suitable for the fungus. The determination of chemical compositions showed that the dry biomass of its mycelium system had high protein content, with 57.8% on its dry-weight basis. Besides, 11 types of amino acids higher than 0.1% of wet weight culture were found in fermentation products. Moreover, dried mycelia of the fungus contained 27.4% carbohydrates. The protein and carbohydrate containing in the mycelium and fruit body of T. clypeatus were not statistically different. These results showed that a stirred-tank bioreactor could be applied to culture the fungus. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fungus growing termites is a unique group of termites that can grow mutualistic fungi from Basidiomycota: Termitomyces inside their nest. This group of termites has an important ecological role as a major decomposer. However, comprehensive study of fungus-growing termites is limited in Thailand and the complex termites-fungus relationship is a challenging issue to study. This research was aimed to identify the species of termites and fungal symbionts using DNA barcoding, to compare the molecular results with morphological identification, and to gain insights into the co-evolutionary relationship by constructing co-cladogenesis analysis from the termites and the fungal symbionts. Four termite species (Macrotermes annandalei, Odontotermes feae, Ancistrotermes pakistanicus and Ancistrotermes sp.) from four Sakaerat and two Chulabhorn colonies were identified based on the BLAST-N of cytochrome oxidase sub-unit I (COI) sequence and morphological identification. The partial COI sequence of O. feae identified in this study is the first record of this species deposited into the NCBI nucleotide database. Molecular identification of the fungi were conducted by using nuclear ribosomal internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region. The results showed that those six termite colonies grew specifically the fungal genus Termitomyces. Three genetic groups of Termitomyces i.e. Group 1, Group 2 (T. cylindricus), and Group 6, were present among the six colonies. Molecular identification was confidently supported by morphological identification of termite samples, at least up to the genus level. High host-symbionts specificity is considerably observed within some clades on paired termite-fungus phylogeny. However, more sampling is needed for the more confident result. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Termitomyces species are wild edible mushrooms that possess high nutritional value and a wide range of medicinal properties. However, the cultivation of these mushrooms is very difficult because of their symbiotic association with termites. In this study, we aimed to examine the differences in physicochemical indices and microbial communities between combs with Termitomyces basidiomes (CF) and combs without Termitomyces basidiomes (CNF). High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES), gas chromatography equipped with a flame ionization detector (GC-FID), some commercial kits, high-throughput sequencing of the 16s RNA, and internal transcribed spacer (ITS) were used. Humidity, pH, and elements, i.e., Al, Ba, Fe, Mn, Ni, S, Ca, and Mg were higher while amino acids particularly alanine, tyrosine, and isoleucine were lower in CF as compared to CNF. The average contents of fatty acids were not significantly different between the two comb categories. The bacterial genera Alistipes, Burkholderia, Sediminibacterium, and Thermus were dominant in all combs. Brevibacterium, Brevundimonas, and Sediminibacterium were significantly more abundant in CF. Basidiomycota and Ascomycota were also identified in combs. Termitomyces clypeatus, Termitomyces sp. Group3, and Termitomyces sp. were the most dominant species in combs. However, any single Termitomyces species was abundantly present in an individual comb.

The mutualistic symbiosis between termites of the Macrotermitinae subfamily (Isoptera: Termitidae) and fungi of the genus Termitomyces (Basidiomycota: Lyophyllaceae) is of great ecological and socio-economic importance. Seasonal fruit bodies of the symbiotic fungi are regularly collected and sold in Côte d’Ivoire. However, there are very few studies on their diversity, phenology, distribution and especially the socio-economic scope of the fruit bodies of these fungi at a national scale. This study aims at (i) assessing the diversity of Termitomyces fruit bodies in Côte d’Ivoire and (ii) mapping their fructification areas through a determination of their spatiotemporal distribution according to a climatic and phytogeographic gradients. Using ethnomycological surveys all over the Ivorian territory, information was collected from rural populations on the fructification of Termitomyces and their socio-economic importance. Based on these surveys, sampling efforts of these fungi were properly structured and oriented. The results revealed a diversity of 16 species of Termitomyces, including 9 species new to Côte d’Ivoire and 2 probably new to science. Five species were found in the forest zone, nine in theGuinean savannah zone and four in the Sudano-Guinean zone. Termitomyces’s fructifications were observed throughout the year, with specific period for each species. All listed species are regularly consumed by populations. However, only Termitomyces letestui (Pat.) R. Heim and Termitomyces schimperi (Pat.) R. Heim are marketed on a relatively large scale.

Production, purification and characterisation of a black pigment from Termitomyces albuminosus as melanin is reported, for the first time, from shaken submerged culture condition using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), elemental analysis, ultraviolet–visible (UV-VIS), and Fourier transformed infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) and 13C (CP/MAS) NMR spectra. SEM results on T. albuminosus revealed nanogranular nature of melanin nanoparticles within size range of 400–100 nm with fractal dimension D = 1.195–1.73. Elemental analysis of melanin indicated 54.6% C, 3.5% H, 2.4% N, 26.9% O, and 12% S. UV-VIS and FTIR spectra confirmed to the characteristic of melanin and were identical to the reference commercial sepia melanin. Further validation of the identity of pigment as melanin was achieved by EPR analysis. Termitomyces albuminosus melanin is postulated to be DOPA-type melanin confirmed by 13C (CP/MAS) NMR spectral analysis showing chemical shift at 200–170 ppm carbonyl, 160–110 ppm aromatic region, and with high 40–30 ppm open chain aliphatic region. Chemical modification through oxidation and cysteinylation (Pheomelanin) is implied as indicated by relatively high sulphur content (12%).

Termitomyces species are wild edible mushrooms that possess high nutritional value and a wide range of medicinal properties. However, the cultivation of these mushrooms is very difficult because of their symbiotic association with termites. In this study, we aimed to examine the differences in physicochemical indices and microbial communities between combs with Termitomyces basidiomes (CF) and combs without Termitomyces basidiomes (CNF). High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES), gas chromatography equipped with a flame ionization detector (GC-FID), some commercial kits, high-throughput sequencing of the 16s RNA, and internal transcribed spacer (ITS) were used. Humidity, pH, and elements, i.e., Al, Ba, Fe, Mn, Ni, S, Ca, and Mg were higher while amino acids particularly alanine, tyrosine, and isoleucine were lower in CF as compared to CNF. The average contents of fatty acids were not significantly different between the two comb categories. The bacterial genera Alistipes , Burkholderia , Sediminibacterium , and Thermus were dominant in all combs. Brevibacterium , Brevundimonas , and Sediminibacterium were significantly more abundant in CF. Basidiomycota and Ascomycota were also identified in combs. Termitomyces clypeatus , Termitomyces sp. Group3, and Termitomyces sp. were the most dominant species in combs. However, any single Termitomyces species was abundantly present in an individual comb. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Monoculture farming poses significant disease challenges, but fungus-farming termites are able to successfully keep their monoculture crop free from contamination by other fungi. It has been hypothesised that obligate gut passage of all plant substrate used to manure the fungal symbiont is key to accomplish this. Here we refute this hypothesis in the fungus-farming termite species Macrotermes bellicosus. Results: We first used ITS amplicon sequencing to show that plant substrate foraged on by termite workers harbour diverse fungal communities, which potentially could challenge the farming symbiosis. Subsequently, we cultivated fungi from dissected sections of termite guts to show that fungal diversity does not decrease during gut passage. Therefore, we investigated if healthy combs harboured these undesirable fungal genera, and whether the presence of workers affected fungal diversity within combs. Removal of workers led to a surge in fungal diversity in combs, implying that termite defences must be responsible for the near-complete absence of other fungi in functioning termite gardens. Conclusions: The rapid proliferation of some of these fungi when colonies are compromised indicates that some antagonists successfully employ a sit-and-wait strategy that allows them to remain dormant until conditions are favourable. Although this strategy requires potentially many years of waiting, it prevents these fungi from engaging in an evolutionary arms race with the termite host, which employs a series of complementary behavioural and chemical defences that may prove insurmountable. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The genus Termitomyces (Lyophyllaceae, Basidiomycota) is often associated with fungus-feeding termites (Macrotermitinae) due to their strong symbiotic relationships. The genus is widely found exclusively in certain regions of Africa and Asia. They are recognized as edible mushroom within Southeast Asia as well. But it is often misidentified based on morphology by the local communities especially in Malaysia for Chlorophyllum molybdites which is a highly poisonous mushroom. Thus, it is necessary to study the genus for Malaysia with the synergy of using both morphological and molecular identification. In this study, we aim to describe another new species as an addition to the genus Termitomyces found within Sabah, Malaysia. We generated two new sequences (nrLSU and mtSSU) for the new species and a total of 28 nrLSU and mtSSU sequences were retrieved from GenBank for the phylogenetic analysis using maximum likelihood and Bayesian inferences. We identified that the new collection from Sabah province is a new species and named as Termitomyces gilvus based on the termites found in the mound. A phylogeny tree made from the concatenated genes of LSU and mtSSU suggests that T. gilvus is closely related to T. bulborhizus from China. According to our results, the combination of molecular and morphology proved to be a robust approach to re-evaluate the taxonomic status of Termitomyces species in Malaysia. Additional surveys are needed to verify the species diversity and clarify their geographic distribution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A survey of mushrooms was conducted in Xishuangbanna, Yunnan Province, China, in the rainy season (May to October) of 2012, 2013, and 2014, during which 16 specimens of Termitomyces were collected. Preliminary macro- and micro-characteristics, together with ITS sequence data, showed that four of the specimens belonged to a new species (Termitomyces fragilis), while the other 12 belonged to T. aurantiacus, T. eurrhizus, T. globules, T. microcarpus, and T. bulborhizus. In this paper, T. fragilis is introduced as a species new to science based on morphological characterization and phylogenetic analyses. Macro- and micro- morphological descriptions, color photographs and line drawings of the new species, and a phylogenetic tree to show the placement of the new species are provided. T. fragilis is then compared with other closely related taxa in the genus Termitomyces. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Mycosystema is the property of Mycosystema Editorial Board and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Fungal nodules and aged fungus gardens are products of termite fungiculture systems, and are the diets of termites. To understand the nutrition flow in fungiculture, we quantified the number and mass of fungal nodules produced along with fungus garden maturation and analysed the α-amino acid and fatty acid compositions of fungal nodules, fungus gardens, and termite tissues of a fungus-growing termite, Odontotermes formosanus. 1 g of fungus garden produced 5,148 fungal nodules (∼68.0 mg). Approximately 7.0% of α-amino acids were allocated to the fungal nodules and the rest (∼93.0%) remained in the fungus gardens. The compositions of α-amino acids or fatty acids in aged fungus gardens and fungal nodules were more similar to that of termite tissues than fresh fungus gardens, which supports the idea that termites nutritionally depend on the fungal products. Among the 18 α-amino acids, tryptophan was an essential amino acid and was the only one missing from fresh and aged fungus gardens, but found in fungal nodules at significantly higher concentrations. Hence, termites must consume fungal nodules to obtain tryptophan for survival. Furthermore, the fungus spores incorporated in nodules, were transferred when nodules were ingested by termites. We propose that allocating tryptophan in fungal nodules is crucial to enhance the mutualism between the fungus and termite. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mushrooms produce a variety of bioactive compounds that are known to have a potential source of antioxidant and antimicrobial properties. Natural antioxidants can protect against free radicals without any side effects. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the antioxidant and antimicrobial activities of Auricularia and Termitomyces extracts. Specimens of Auricularia and Termitomyces spp. were collected from Kakamega National Reserve Forest in Kenya. Specimens were identified, extracted, and screened for their antioxidant and antimicrobial activities using stable free radical DPPH and colorimetric bioassay methods, respectively. The antimicrobial activity of the extracts was tested against Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus, MRSA, Candida albicans, and Candida parapsilosis. The maximum scavenging activity of hot water extract of Auricularia spp. was observed at 70.4% with the IC50 value of 40 μg/mL. Of the three extracts of Termitomyces spp., 70% ethanol extract has shown the highest scavenging activity (63%) with the IC50 value of 50 μg/mL. Chloroform and hot water extracts of Auricularia have shown statistically significantly different antifungal activities against C. parapsilosis (df = 2, F = 22.49, p ≤ 0.05). Of all the organisms, S. aureus was highly susceptible to 70% ethanol and hot water extracts of Termitomyces spp. with minimum inhibitory concentration values of 0.67±0.29 mg/mL. S. aureus and E. coli were the most susceptible and resistant bacteria to the hot water extract, respectively. In conclusion, the extracts of Auricularia spp. and Termitomyces spp. have shown promising antimicrobial and antioxidant activities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Fungus-growing termites are associated with genus-specific fungal symbionts, which they acquire via horizontal transmission. Selection of specific symbionts may be explained by the provisioning of specific, optimal cultivar growth substrates by termite farmers. We tested whether differences in in vitro performance of Termitomyces cultivars from nests of three termite species on various substrates are correlated with the interaction specificity of their hosts. We performed single-factor growth assays (varying carbon sources), and a two-factor geometric framework experiment (simultaneously varying carbohydrate and protein availability). Although we did not find qualitative differences between Termitomyces strains in carbon-source use, there were quantitative differences, which we analysed using principal component analysis. This showed that growth of Termitomyces on different carbon sources was correlated with termite host genus, rather than host species, while growth on different ratios and concentrations of protein and carbohydrate was correlated with termite host species. Our findings corroborate the interaction specificity between fungus-growing termites and Termitomyces cultivars and indicate that specificity between termite hosts and fungi is reflected both nutritionally and physiologically. However, it remains to be demonstrated whether those differences contribute to selection of specific fungal cultivars by termites at the onset of colony foundation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Gorakhpur district having varied environmental condition is sanctioned with wealth of many important macrofungi but only few works has been done here to explore the diversity. The present investigation focus on the ethnomacrofungal study of Gorakhpur district. From information obtained it became clear that many macrofungi are widely consumed here by local and tribal peoples as food and medicines. Species of Daldinia, Macrolepiota, Pleurotus, Termitomyces, etc. are used to treat various ailments. Thus the present study clearly states that Gorakhpur district is reservoir of macrofungi having nutritional and medicinal benefits. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]