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Objective The objectives of these experiments were to evaluate (1) if inclusion of inedible tallow containing ractopamine (RAC) in the cattle diet influences feedlot performance, carcass characteristics, and results in detectable RAC in tissues and (2) the effect of withdrawal time on RAC residues in the gastrointestinal-tract digesta of cattle. Materials and Methods In Exp. 1, beef steers (n = 28) were assigned to dietary treatments formulated with feed tallow ranging from 100% inedible tallow to 100% technical tallow. After 91 d, steers were transported to a commercial abattoir and slaughtered, and tissues were collected for RAC analysis. In Exp. 2, steers fitted with ruminal and duodenal cannulas were assigned to the control group (no RAC) or a group in which RAC was supplemented at 400 mg of RAC∙animal−1∙d−1 for 28 d. On d 29, RAC supplementation was withdrawn. Daily ruminal, duodenal, and fecal samples were obtained for RAC analysis beginning 3 d before RAC withdrawal and continuing to d 13 after withdrawal. Results and Discussion No treatment effects of dietary inedible tallow inclusion was observed for final BW (P Implications and Applications The results indicate that RAC residue in feed tallow does not affect animal performance or carcass characteristics. Detectable RAC in sampled tissues and gastrointestinal digesta suggests a need for further investigation of RAC residues to maintain compliance for exported beef products.

The objective of this study was to characterize flavor, fatty acid composition, and volatile compounds of beef treated with common antimicrobial interventions in beef processing facilities. The effect of 3 prechilling antimicrobial interventions (4.5% lactic acid [LA]; 400 ppm peroxyacetic acid acidified to pH 1.2 with a sulfuric acid and sodium sulfate blend [aPAA]; or untreated control [CON]) and 4 postchilling treatments (CON; LA; aPAA; or a 2.5% solution of a commercial blend of lactic and citric acid [LAC]) were analyzed. Briskets (n = 30/treatment) were treated before and after chilling using a custom-built pilot-sized spray cabinet, ground twice, and formed into patties. Cooked patties were analyzed by a trained sensory panel, and a subset of raw samples (n = 6) were analyzed for fatty acid composition and volatile compounds. Samples treated with LA before and after chilling were more intense in sourness than the CON (P < 0.05). Fatty acid analysis showed no differences (P > 0.05) due to the use of chemical interventions. Only postchilling treatments had an effect on volatile compounds. The relative abundances of pentanal and pentanol were greater (P < 0.05) in LA-treated postchilling intervention samples than CON and LAC, hexanoic acid was greater (P < 0.05) in aPAA than CON and LAC, and acetic acid was greater (P < 0.05) in aPAA than LAC. Overall, these results demonstrated that LA pre- and postchilling antimicrobial interventions only impact the sourness of ground beef but did not affect the fatty acid composition, while postchilling antimicrobial treatments had a minimal impact on volatile compounds.

The objectives of these experiments were to investigate (1) the relative abundance of transcripts for Cu-responsive genes in whole bovine liver vs. cultured hepatocytes and (2) the influence of Cu dose on the relative abundance of transcripts for Cu-responsive genes in cultured bovine hepatocytes. Experiment 1: Liver samples were obtained immediately post-mortem from one healthy Angus steer. Half of the tissue samples were placed in RNAlater solution; the remaining half was used to isolate hepatocytes. Experiment 2: A subset of cultured hepatocytes was incubated in media containing: 0 mg/L, 0.10 mg/L, 1.0 mg/L, 10.0 mg/L, and 100 mg/L Cu for 1 h. Transcripts analyzed were aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH2), apolipoprotein A-1 (APOA1), antioxidant 1 (ATOX1), ATPase copper transporting alpha (ATP7A), ATPase copper transporting beta (ATP7B), betaine homocysteine methyltransferase (BHMT), flavin reductase (BLVRB), carbonic anhydrase II (CA2), copper chaperone for superoxide dismutase (CCS), cytochrome c oxidase copper chaperone (COX17), Cu transporter 1 (CTR1), glutamate dehydrogenase (GLUD1), glutathione synthetase (GSS), protein disulfide isomerase A3 (PDIA3), and superoxide dismutase (Cu–Zn) (SOD1). Β-Actin (ACTB) was selected as the endogenous control in both experiments. Experiment 1: Whole liver had greater (P

Objective This experiment evaluated the effects of Cu, Mn, and Zn source on mineral status, reproduction, and performance of grazing beef cattle in eastern Colorado. Materials and Methods Crossbred (Angus and Angus × Hereford; n = 261) 3-yr-old beef cows were stratified by expected calving date, BW, BCS, and liver Cu status and randomly assigned to 1 of 6 replicates. Replicates were then assigned to 1 of 2 treatments (n = 40–45 cows per replicate), resulting in 3 replicates per treatment for the 2-yr experiment. Treatments consisted of (1) inorganic–organic trace mineral combination (IOC; 75% of Cu, Mn, and Zn from sulfate forms and the remaining 25% from organic AA complexes) and (2) hydroxy trace minerals (HTM; 100% from hydroxychloride forms). Replicates were rotated among pastures approximately every 28 d to minimize pasture effects. Free-choice mineral feeders were used to provide NASEM (2000) recommended concentrations of Cu, Mn, and Zn continuously for 2 yr. Blood samples and liver biopsies were obtained from every cow before the initiation of the experiment and then from a subgroup of animals (20 random animals per replicate) at the end of yr 1 (d 335 of the experiment) and 2 (d 638 of the experiment). Results and Discussion Over the 2-yr experiment, mineral intake, cow BW, BCS, pregnancy rate to AI, and overall pregnancy rate did not differ across treatments. Calf weaning weights were also not affected by trace mineral source. At the end of yr 1 and yr 2, liver Cu concentrations were greater (P ≤ 0.05) in HTM- compared with IOC-supplemented cows. Liver Zn concentrations were greater (P 0.05) by trace mineral source. Implications and Applications Overall productivity of grazing beef cows and their calves over a 2-yr period were similar in cattle supplemented with hydroxy or a combination of sulfate and organic trace minerals. Liver Cu and Zn concentrations were greater in cows fed HTM.

Objective Production diseases, such as liver abscesses, can affect cattle performance; however, the well-being implications are not well understood. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of liver abscess presence on stress-related parameters in beef breed feedlot cattle. Materials and Methods A total of 363 Bos taurus crossbred beef feedlot steers (675 ± 2.3 kg) were assigned to 1 of 3 groups in accordance with the liver abscess score assigned after slaughter: no liver abscess presence (n = 316), mild liver abscess presence (n = 21), and severe liver abscess presence (n = 24). Hair cortisol concentrations were obtained from hair samples collected from each animal 2 d before slaughter. A maximum eye temperature using infrared thermography and a mobility score were assigned to each animal. Serum cortisol concentrations were collected via exsanguination blood for 115 of the 363 animals. Analyses of variance were used to determine differences in measured well-being variables between liver abscess score groups. Results and Discussion All measured parameters, including infrared thermography (P = 0.55), hair cortisol (P = 0.96), and serum cortisol (P = 0.21), showed no effect of liver abscess scores. No statistical analysis was performed with mobility data because only scores of normal locomotion were assigned. Implications and Applications Under the conditions of this experiment, liver abscesses did not affect measured stress-related outcomes. Further research is warranted to improve our understanding of the relationship between liver abscess presence and other stress-related parameters associated with well-being in cattle.

Liver abscess etiology in feedlot steers involves the escape of bacteria from the digestive tract to form a polymicrobial abscess within or on the external surface of the liver. However, little is known about the effects of feedlot finishing systems on the microbial composition of the liver abscess purulent material. Liver abscesses were collected at the time of harvest from steers originating from a single feedlot managed in either a traditional program (which included tylosin phosphate supplementation) or a natural program (without tylosin phosphate supplementation). The purulent material of liver abscesses from traditionally managed steers (N = 53 abscesses) and that of naturally managed steers (N = 62 abscesses) was characterized using the V4 region of the 16S rRNA gene. Two phyla and three genera were found in greater than 1% relative abundance across all abscesses. The genus Fusobacterium was identified in all liver abscess samples and accounted for 64% of sequencing reads. Bacteroides and Porphyromonas genera accounted for 33% and 1% of reads, respectively. Trueperella was more likely to be found in the liver abscesses of naturally managed steers than traditionally managed steers (P = 0.022). Over 99% of the genus-level bacterial sequences observed across all liver abscesses belonged to Gram-negative genera. Bacteria known to colonize both the rumen and hindgut were identified within liver abscesses. No differences in alpha diversity or beta diversity were detected between liver abscess communities (between the two management programs or individual pens) when tested as richness, Shannon Diversity Index, or weighted UniFrac distances (P0.05). These results were consistent with previous identification of Fusobacterium necrophorum as the primary bacteriologic agent within liver abscesses and emphasized the relationship between the gastrointestinal microbiota and liver abscess formation. Though the microbiota of the liver abscess purulent material was similar between steers fed an antibiotic-free diet and those fed an antibiotic-containing diet from the same feedlot, divergence was detected in liver abscess communities with some being dominated by Fusobacterium and others being dominated by Bacteroides.As feedlot cattle consume grain, the rumen becomes more acidic. If the lining of the digestive tract is damaged, bacteria that normally remain in the digestive tract can enter the body. Certain bacteria like Fusobacterium necrophorum are involved in the formation of liver abscesses. Feedlot cattle are commonly fed an antibiotic (tylosin phosphate) to reduce the occurrence of liver abscesses, but increasing scrutiny is placed on the antibiotic use. However, the effect of eliminating the antibiotic used to prevent liver abscesses on the bacterial communities involved in liver abscess formation is unknown. This study compared the bacteria found within liver abscesses of cattle fed tylosin phosphate with that of cattle not fed tylosin phosphate. All liver abscesses contained F. necrophorum, and Bacteroides was the second most commonly identified bacterium. Trace amounts of bacteria known to colonize the mouth and digestive tract were observed. Trueperella, a bacteria targeted by tylosin phosphate, was found more frequently in liver abscesses from cattle that received no antibiotic. While the core bacterial composition of the liver abscess was unaffected by antibiotic supplementation to feedlot steers, reduced Trueperella in liver abscesses from cattle-fed tylosin phosphate could be related to a reduction in liver abscess prevalence.

Hot-iron branding uses thermal injury to permanently identify cattle causing painful tissue damage. The primary objective was to examine the physiological and behavioral effects of oral meloxicam (MEL), compared to a control, administered at the time of hot-iron branding in Angus and Hereford steers and heifers. The secondary objectives were to investigate breed and sex effects on pain biomarkers. A total of 70 yearlings, consisting of 35 heifers and 35 steers (Angus, Hereford, or Angus × Hereford), were enrolled in the study. Animals were blocked by sex, randomized across weight, and assigned to receive MEL (1 mg/kg) or a placebo (CON). Biomarkers were assessed for 48 h after branding and included infrared thermography (IRT), mechanical nociceptive threshold (MNT), accelerometry and a visual analog scale (VAS), and serum cortisol and prostaglandin E2 metabolites (PGEM). Wound healing was assessed for 12 wk. Hair samples to quantify cortisol levels were taken prior to and 30 d post-branding. Responses were analyzed using repeated measures with calf nested in treatment as a random effect, and treatment, time, treatment by time interaction, breed, and sex as fixed effects. There was a treatment by time interaction for PGEM (P0.01) with MEL having lower values than CON at 6, 24, and 48 h (MEL: 18.34 ± 3.52, 19.61 ± 3.48, and 22.24 ± 3.48 pg/mL, respectively; CON: 32.57 ± 3.58, 37.00 ± 3.52, and 33.07 ± 3.48 pg/mL; P0.01). MEL showed less of a difference in maximum IRT values between the branded (2.27 ± 0.29 °C) and control site (3.15 ± 0.29 °C; P0.01). MEL took fewer lying bouts at 0-12 h (4.91 bouts ± 0.56) compared with CON (6.87 bouts ± 0.55; P0.01). Compared with Hereford calves, Angus calves exhibited greater serum but lower hair cortisol, greater PGEM, more lying bouts, and less healed wound scores at 3, 4, and 5 wk. Compared with heifers, steers exhibited lower PGEM, lower branding site and ocular IRT, higher MNT, and lower plasma meloxicam levels. Steers spent more time lying, took more lying bouts and had greater VAS pain, and more healed wound scores at 5 wk than heifers. Meloxicam administration at branding reduced branding and control site temperature differences and reduced lying bouts for the first 12 h. Breed and sex effects were observed across many biomarkers. Changes from baseline values for IRT, MNT, lying time, step count, VAS pain, and wound scoring all support that branding cattle is painful.Hot-iron branding uses thermal injury to permanently identify cattle causing painful tissue damage. The primary objective was to examine the effects of oral meloxicam (MEL), compared with a control, administered at the time of hot-iron branding in Angus and Hereford steers and heifers. The secondary objectives were to investigate breed and sex effects on pain biomarkers. A total of 70 yearlings, consisting of 35 heifers and 35 steers (Angus, Hereford, or Angus × Hereford), were enrolled. Animals were assigned to receive MEL or a placebo. Changes from baseline values for infrared thermography (IRT), mechanical nociceptive threshold, lying time, step count, visual analog scale score, and wound scoring all support that hot-iron branding cattle is painful and investigation into analgesic strategies is needed. MEL administration reduced IRT differences from the branding and control site and reduced lying bouts. Breed and sex effects were observed across a wide range of biomarkers and should be considered in future pain studies. The practicality of administering a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug once at the time of branding is attractive. However, a multimodal approach using a combination of analgesics or longer acting analgesic option warrants further investigation to alleviate pain and discomfort caused by hot-iron branding.

Cattle are stoic by nature and have long been subject to evolutionary pressure to mask pain to avoid becoming prey. Quantifying pain via biomarkers allows researchers to capture changes that are not easily detected by the human eye. Negative public perception of routine husbandry practices such as dehorning and castration is growing, increasing the need for the development of practices to relieve pain and suffering in cattle. The objective was to quantify pain associated with induced bacterial pneumonia, scoop and hot-iron dehorning, surgical castration, and hot-iron branding, and to investigate analgesic effectiveness. Calves were experimentally inoculated with Mannheimia haemolytica, scoop or cautery dehorned, surgically castrated, or hot-iron branded. Outcome variables were collected at baseline and following husbandry procedures and included serum cortisol; infrared thermography (IRT); mechanical nociceptive threshold (MNT); substance P; kinematic gait analysis; a visual analog scale; chute defense and behavior scoring; clinical illness score; computerized lung score; average activity and rumination; prostaglandin E2 metabolite; plasma serum amyloid A and rectal temperature. Responses were analyzed using repeated measures with calf nested in treatment designated as a random effect, and treatment, time, and their interaction designated as fixed effects. A combination of reduced activity levels, decreased force on calves’ right front limb, and increased visual analog scale pain scores all support that bacterial pneumonia in cattle is painful (P ≤ 0.01). Differences in right front force were observed in calves challenged with M. haemolytica and treated with flunixin transdermal (96.5 kg) and those given a placebo (85.5 kg), indicating that flunixin transdermal may attenuate specific pain biomarkers in cattle with respiratory disease (P < 0.01). Administration of a bupivacaine liposome suspension block at the time of dehorning and castration was as effective at controlling pain as a multi-modal approach of lidocaine and meloxicam (as evidenced by treatment differences in MNT, cortisol and gait analysis (P ≤ 0.04)). Oral meloxicam administration at branding reduced IRT differences from the branding and control site and reduced lying bouts (P < 0.01). Breed and sex effects were observed across a wide range of biomarkers and should be investigated in future pain studies. The need for long-acting analgesic options for cattle that demonstrate pain alleviation across multiple biomarkers is apparent and would be beneficial to alleviating pain from routine husbandry procedures like dehorning, castration, and branding, as well as painful disease conditions such as bovine respiratory disease.

Eighty-three American Wagyu steers (725 ±10.7 kg) were used to evaluate the effects of olive byproduct supplementation on feedlot performance and carcass characteristics. We hypothesized that with supplementation of olive byproduct would improve feedlot performance and longissimus muscle intramuscular fat composition. Steers were blocked by initial body weight (BW) and randomly assigned within block to one of two treatments. Treatments consisted of: 1) Control diet (basal ration with no olive byproduct) + 1 kg of supplemental cracked corn per animal per day, or 2) Control diet + 1 kg of supplemental olive byproduct per animal per day. Steers were housed in feedlot pens (n=4 steers/pen; 11 replicates/treatment) and fed a traditional American Wagyu finishing diet (DM basis: 68.4% DM, 14.3% CP; 74.8% TDN, 1.16 Mcal/kg NEg, 5.3% crude fat). Diets were delivered to pens, once daily, in the morning in amounts to allow ad libitum access to feed over a 24 h period. Olive byproduct and cracked corn were top-dressed to the appropriate treatment pens immediately after delivery of the basal ration. Steers were individually weighed on d -1 and 0, and approximately every 28 d throughout the 177 d experiment. Equal numbers of steers per treatment were slaughtered throughout the experiment and carcass data were collected. Data were analyzed using a mixed effects model of SAS (SAS Inst. Inc.) for a randomized complete block design. Steers receiving olive byproduct had a lower final BW (P < 0.01) when compared to steers receiving the control diet. Longissimus muscle long chain fatty acids C18:1 and C:22:0 were greater (P < 0.05) and C18:0 lesser (P < 0.05) in controls when compared to steers supplemented with olive byproduct. Under the conditions of this experiment, feeding olive byproduct reduced final BW and had minimal impacts on longissimus muscle fatty acid composition.

Twelve steers, fitted with rumen canulae were used in a 4 x 4 Latin square design to examine the impact of the direct fed microbial Propionibacteria acidipropionici (PA) on rumen fermentation characteristics. All steers were housed together in one pen equipped with GrowSafe feed intake monitoring stations and one Greenfeed system used to estimate in vivo methane production. Steers were fed a corn silage-based diet throughout the experiment. Treatments consisted of PA administered at: 1) 0.0; 2) 1.0 x 108; 3)1.0 x 109; and 4) 1.0 x 1010 CFU∙animal-1∙day-1. Treatments were administered directly into the rumen as a single bolus dose daily. On day 7 and 14 of each period, rumen fluid was collected from each steer 2 h post treatment administration for VFA analysis and for determining in vitro fermentation characteristics. Following a 14d washout period, animal treatments were switched, and the experiment repeated. Data were analyzed as a 4 x 4 Latin square design. In vivo propionic acid molar proportions (25.4 vs 23.6±0.24) and total VFA concentrations (125.2 vs 121.3±1.87) were greater (P < 0.05) in steers receiving PA compared with controls. In vitro DM disappearance (P < 0.05; 63.3% vs 59.2%±1.12) and total VFA (P < 0.05; 147.9 vs 145.2±1.76) were greater and methane (ml/g DMD) lesser (P < 0.04; 13.1 vs 15.6±0.11) in fermentation vessels incubated with rumen fluid from animals receiving PA compared with controls. Dry matter disappearance (P < 0.03) and propionic acid (P < 0.04) increased linearly as dose of PA increased. In vitro Total VFA tended (P < 0.08) to increase linearly and methane production tended (P < 0.09) to decrease quadratically in response PA dose. In vivo methane production was similar across treatments. In conclusion, PA addition improved in vivo and in vitro rumen fermentation characteristics.

This study was designed to evaluate the effects of açaí seed (AS) as a fiber source on intake, digestibility, and ruminal fermentation parameters of beef cattle fed a high concentrate diet. Five rumen-fistulated Zebu bulls were used in a 5x5 Latin-square design. Treatments consisted of five diets with different inclusion rates of AS: 0, 5, 10, 15, and 20% of the diet dry matter (DM). The total mixed ration contained 75% of concentrate and 25% of roughage. Mombasa grass silage and AS were used as the roughage sources. The concentrate portion of the diet contained cracked corn (61.8%), soybean meal (8%) and vitamin/mineral premix (5.2% of DM). Each experimental period lasted 25 d and the last 11 d were used for data collection. Total fecal collections were performed over three days. Titanium dioxide was used to estimate the omasal outflow. Statistical significance was declared at P < 0.05, and tendency at 0.05 > P < 0.10. A linear increase was observed for DM (P= 0.07), organic matter (P < 0.05), crude protein (CP, P < 0.05), and neutral detergent fiber (NDF) intake with the inclusion rate of AS. Intake was greatest in bulls receiving diets containing 20% AS. A linear decrease (P< 0.05) in NDF digestibility was detected with the inclusion rate of AS. DM, CP digestibility, and metabolic energy were similar across treatments (P > 0.10). Ruminal and intestinal DM and nutrient digestibility were similar between the treatments (P > 0.10). Rumen concentrations of acetic acid increased (P < 0.05), and total short-chain fatty acids (P = 0.07) and butyrate (P = 0.08) tended to increase linearly with the inclusion of AS. Açaí seed as a source of fiber in confined Zebu bulls diets alters DM intake and rumen fermentation but has no impact on total tract DM digestibility.

Six steers fitted with ruminal cannulae were used in a crossover design to examine the impact of direct fed microbial (DFM) supplementation on in vivo rumen fermentation characteristics and in vitro lactic acid clearance. Steers were fed a moderately high concentrate -1∙day-1 of 4.45x 1010 CFU/g of Propionibacteria acidipropionici). Treatments were administered daily, directly into the rumen via the cannula as a single bolus dose at the time of feeding. Rumen contents were sampled two h post-feeding daily and analyzed for short chain fatty acids (SCFA). On d 7 and 14, rumen fluid was collected from all steers and subjected to an in vitro lactic acid clearance challenge. Lactic acid and SCFA concentrations were determined at 3, 6 and 9 h post incubation. After d 14, all cattle received the basal diet for 21 d. On d 22, treatment crossover was implemented and the experiment repeated. Animal was considered the experimental unit and data were analyzed as a crossover design using Proc Mixed in SAS. In vivo propionic acid concentrations were greater (P < 0.05) and total SCFA tended (P < 0.06) to be greater in rumen fluid from steers receiving DFM. D- and total lactic acid concentrations were lesser (P < 0.05) at 3 h post in vitro incubation for steers receiving DFM. D-, L+, and total lactic acid concentrations were similar between treatments at all other timepoints. In vitro propionic acid and total SCFA concentrations were greater (P < 0.05) and acetic acid concentrations lesser (P < 0.05) in steers receiving DFM. These data indicate that the DFM Propionibacteria acidipropionici, alters in vivo and in vitro rumen fermentation characteristics.

Twelve Angus steers (BW 530.9 ± 22.7kg) fitted with ruminal cannulae were used to determine the impact of trace mineral (TM) source on digestibility and ruminal VFA and soluble concentrations of Cu, Mn, and Zn. Steers were fed a high concentrate diet balanced to meet the requirement of finishing feedlot steers for 21d. Treatments consisted of Cu, Mn, and Zn supplemented at 18, 40, and 90 mg/kg DM, respectively, from either sulfate (STM) or hydroxy trace mineral (HTM) sources (n = 6 steers/treatment; experimental unit = steer). Following a 21-d adaptation period total fecal output was collected for 5 d. Trace mineral sources had no impact on nutrient digestibility. On d 6, rumen fluid was collected at 0, 2, and 4 h post-feeding for VFA analysis. There were no treatment x time interactions for any VFA measured. However, HTM steers had greater (P < 0.05) ruminal molar proportions of propionate and tended (P < 0.07) to have greater molar proportions of valerate compared to STM steers. Steers fed STM had greater (P < 0.05) molar proportions of butyrate compared to HTM steers. Steers were then fed the same high concentrate diet without supplemental Cu, Zn, or Mn for 14 d. On d 15 steers received a pulse dose (via rumen cannula) from either STM or HTM. Ruminal samples were obtained at 2 h intervals starting at -4 and ending at 24 h relative to dosing. There was a treatment x time interaction (P < 0.05) for ruminal soluble Cu concentrations. Ruminal soluble mineral concentrations were greater (P < 0.05) for Cu at 4, 6, 8, and 16 h post-dosing in STM compared to HTM supplemented steers. Results indicate that ruminal solubility of Cu differs between STM and HTM sources and may impact rumen fermentation characteristics.

The objective of the present study was to evaluate the effect of feed type, pH, and Cu and Zn concentration on Cu and Zn binding with different feedstuffs after in vitro incubation in water. For this purpose, six feedstuffs (wheat straw, grass hay, corn silage, dried distillers grains with solubles, ground corn, and soybean meal) were incubated in ultrapure water (pH≈6.4) with supplemental Cu concentrations equivalent to 0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 30, and 40 mg Cu/kg DM or supplemental Zn concentrations equivalent to 0, 15, 30, 45, 60, 90, and 120 mg Zn/kg DM for 48 h. This experiment was repeated; however, following the 48-h incubation in ultrapure water (pH≈6.4), samples were incubated for one additional hour at a fitted pH of 2.3. Following incubation, the indigestible residue was analyzed for the presence of Cu and Zn. Copper and zinc bind to other dietary constituents at a pH similar to that of the rumen, regardless of the type of feedstuffs (concentrate or roughage). However, in a pH condition similar to that of the abomasum, part of these bonds is broken. In these pH conditions, there is greater breakdown of bonds in concentrate feedstuffs than in roughages, regardless of the mineral analyzed. Comparing these minerals, zinc forms weaker bonds than copper.

International committees that have published nutrient requirements for dairy cattle have used data from mineral studies conducted in the 1920s to 1970s, and no study has reported data from animals less than 100 kg; therefore, there is a need to update mineral requirements for preweaned dairy calves. Thus, a meta-analysis was performed to estimate the mineral requirements of Ca, P, K, Mg, and Na for Holstein and Holstein × Gyr crossbred preweaned dairy calves using data from 5 studies developed at the Universidade Federal de Vicosa (Vicosa, MG, Brazil). A total of 210 calves were separated into 2 breeds: purebred Holstein calves (animals with a Holstein pedigree higher than 87.5%) and Holstein × Gyr crossbred calves (animals with a Holstein pedigree lower than 87.5%). The comparative slaughter technique was used to estimate animal body composition and empty body weight (EBW). Mineral requirements for maintenance were estimated by the regression between retained mineral and mineral intake, whereas mineral requirements for gain were obtained from the first derivative of the mineral content in the animal's body. In addition, breed effect was tested on the intercept and slope of the models. The effect of breed was not observed for all analyzed variables. Thus, net requirements for maintenance were 12.73, 11.81, 20.28, 3.50, and 6.37 mg/kg of EBW per day for Ca, P, K, Mg, and Na, respectively. Retention coefficients were 73.18, 65.20, 13.16, 29.55, and 24.28% for Ca, P, K, Mg, and Na, respectively. The following equations were determined to estimate net requirements for gain (NRG, g/d): NRG for Ca = 14.402 × EBW-0.139 × empty body gain (EBG); NRG for P = 5.849 × EBW-0.027 × EBG; NRG for K = 1.140 × EBW-0.048 × EBG; NRG for Mg = 0.603 × EBW-0.036 × EBG; and NRG for Na = 1.508 × EBW-0.045 × EBG. Due to the high variation between the data found in this study and in the available literature, we suggest that further studies should be conducted to evaluate the estimates of this study.

Objective A microencapsulated blend of essential oils (EO) fed to feedlot cattle was evaluated against monensin (MON) or used in association with MON and compared against MON alone or MON + tylosin (TYL). Materials and Methods We used a randomized complete block design using weaned steers (n = 656; 254.4 ± 7.9 kg of initial BW) assigned to 32 pens (8 replicates per treatment) and fed for 208 d. The treatments were as follows: MON + TYL (33 mg and 11 mg/kg of DM, respectively); MON (33 mg/kg of DM); EO (150 mg/kg of DM); and MON + EO (33 mg and 150 mg/kg of DM, respectively). Results and Discussion Treatments were similar for final BW (P ≥ 0.24) and overall ADG (P ≥ 0.27). Overall DMI did not differ for MON versus EO (P ≥ 0.93); however, MON + EO had reduced overall DMI compared with MON (P = 0.03; 9.2 vs. 9.6 kg/d, respectively) or MON + TYL (P = 0.04; 9.2 vs. 9.6 kg/d, respectively). There was no effect (P ≥ 0.14) on overall G:F; however, adjusted overall G:F tended to be greater for MON + EO versus MON (P = 0.08; 0.187 vs. 0.182, respectively) and for MON + EO versus MON + TYL (P = 0.07; 0.187 vs. 0.183, respectively). Carcass characteristics were similar (P ≥ 0.11) for all treatments. Implications and Applications Steers receiving EO had similar performance and carcass characteristics compared with steers fed MON. The MON + EO tended to improve carcass-adjusted performance compared with MON. The replacement of TYL with EO when in combination with MON may result in additional improvement in feed efficiency without changes in liver abscesses.

Eight crossbred steers (BW 719.0 ± 65.0 kg) with ruminal and duodenal cannulae were used to examine the effect of trace mineral (TM) source on digestibility; ruminal and duodenal solubility of Cu, Zn, and Mn; and in vitro release of Cu, Zn, and Mn from the solid fraction of ruminal digesta. Experiment 1 determined the effect of TM source on DM and NDF digestibility in steers fed a corn silage and steam-flaked corn-based diet. Treatments consisted of 10 mg Cu, 20 mg Mn, and 30 mg Zn/kg DM from either sulfate TM (STM) or hydroxy TM (HTM) sources. Following a 14-d adaptation period, total fecal output was collected for 5 d. Dry matter digestibility was not affected by treatment, but NDF digestibility tended (P < 0.09) to be greater in HTM vs. STM supplemented steers. In Exp. 2, steers were fed a diet without supplemental Cu, Zn, or Mn for 19 d. Steers were then administrated a pulse dose of STM or HTM (2× the National Research Council requirements for Cu, Mn, and Zn) via the rumen fistula. Ruminal and duodenal samples were obtained at 2-h intervals starting at −4 and ending at 24 h relative to dosing. Ruminal soluble Cu and Zn concentrations were affected by treatment, time, and treatment × time. Soluble concentrations and percent soluble Cu and Zn in ruminal digesta increased (P < 0.05) above 0-h values for 10 h following dosing with STM, but not HTM. Concentrations of Cu and Zn in ruminal solid digesta were also affected by treatment, time, and treatment × time. Steers dosed with STM had greater (P < 0.05) solid digesta Cu concentrations at 2 and 4 h but lesser (P < 0.05) concentrations from 6 to 20 h post-dosing than those receiving HTM. Ruminal solid digesta Zn concentrations were greater (P < 0.05) in HTM vs. STM-dosed steers from 6 through 24 h post-dosing. Distribution of Mn in ruminal digesta was affected by TM source, but to a lesser extent than Zn and Cu. Duodenal soluble TM concentrations were variable and not affected by treatment. Binding strength of TM to ruminal solid digesta was estimated at 0, 6, and 12 h post-dosing using dialysis against chelating agents. The percentage of Cu and Zn released from ruminal solid digesta by dialysis against Tris–EDTA was greater (P < 0.05) at 12 h post-dosing from steers receiving HTM vs. STM. Results indicate that Cu and Zn from HTM have low solubility in the rumen and appear to be less tightly bound to ruminal solid digesta than Cu and Zn from STM.

Nutrition research continues to be important for consumers to make informed food purchasing decisions and is used in nutrition policy decisions. The objective of this study was to analyze the nutrient concentration of raw and cooked cuts from special-fed veal calves to update nutrient data in the USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference (SR) Release 27. Packages of wholesale (whole loin roasts, center-cut hindshanks and ground veal) and retail veal cuts (osso buco foreshanks, loin chops, leg cutlets and shoulder blade chops) were randomly collected in original vacuum packaging from six U.S. suppliers. Packages were shipped to the Colorado State University Meat Laboratory for cut dissection, cooking, and nutrient analysis. Composites of lean, external fat and seam fat were formed for analysis of proximate, fatty acid, vitamin and mineral composition. Results from this study identified additional fatty acids, established choline concentration, and provided updated veal nutrient composition information for inclusion in USDA SR 27.

Fifty cow-calf pairs were used to investigate the influence of trace mineral (TM) source on reproductive performance following embryo transfer. Cows were blocked by BW and breed and sorted into pens containing 5 cow-calf pairs. Each group was randomly assigned to one of the following treatments: 1) Organic TM (OTM): 75 mg of Cu from Cu proteinate, 8 mg of Co from Co proteinate, 105 mg of Mn from Mn proteinate, 3 mg of Se from Sel-Plex, and 220 mg of Zn from Zn proteinate, animal-1∙d-1; and 2) Inorganic TM (ITM): 255 mg of Cu from Cu sulfate, 2.6 mg of Co from Co carbonate, 1018 mg of Mn from Mn sulfate, 3 mg Se from sodium selenate, and 763 mg of Zn from Zn sulfate, animal-1∙d-1. All cows were fed a roughage-based diet with no supplemental Cu, Co, Mn, Se, or Zn. Cows were individually fed 0.9 kg of the appropriate supplement pellets daily to deliver TM treatments for 89-d, starting 5-d after estrous synchronization. Estrous was synchronized in all cows on d 0 of the experiment and cows received embryos 8-d after expressing estrous. Serum and plasma were obtained every 28-d and analyzed for reproductive hormones and TM, respectively. Data were analyzed as a randomized block design in R (version 4.0.5). Reproductive performance and hormone concentrations were similar across treatments. Cows receiving OTM had greater Se (P < 0.05) and Cu (P < 0.05) concentrations when compared to ITM. There was a treatment x time interaction for Cu concentrations (P < 0.03). Copper concentrations decreased over time in ITM supplemented cows and increased over time in OTM supplemented cows. These data suggest that TM source did not impact reproductive performance but did improve Cu and Se status in cows over the 94-d experiment.

The objective of this experiment was to evaluate the effect of Saccharomyces cerevisiae products (NaturSafe) on in-vitro rumen fermentation characteristics and microbial diversity. Three crossbred feedlot steers fitted with rumen cannulae were adjusted to a moderately high-concentrate diet for 28-d. On d-29, 1 L of rumen fluid was collected from each steer and composited. A set of vaccine bottles (n=5/treatment/time + blanks and controls) containing 0.5 g of basal diet plus dietary treatments were filled with 30 ml of rumen fluid-McDougall’s buffer solution (1:1), sealed, and placed in a 39°C water bath. Treatments consisted of 1) Control (no added NaturSafe); 2) NaturSafe-dry (9 g/animal/day equivalent); 3) NaturSafe-dry (12 g/animal/day equivalent); 4) NaturSafe-liquid (14 g/animal/day equivalent); 5) NaturSafe-liquid (21 g/animal/day equivalent); and NaturSafe-liquid (28 g/animal/day equivalent). Samples were collected at 0, 6 and 12 h post-fermentation. No treatment effect on any fermentation parameters was found at 6 h. At 12-h post-incubation, dry matter digestibility (DMD) (P < 0.04) and molar proportions of propionic acid (P < 0.03) were greater for treatments containing NaturSafe compared with control. Molar proportions of acetic acid (P < 0.07), percent CH4 (P < 0.08), and NH3-N (P < 0.06) tended to be lesser and percent CO2 tended (P < 0.07) to be greater for NaturSafe treatments compared with controls. Microbiome 16S rRNA analysis results suggest that microbial communities differed (P < 0.05) between 6 and 12 h post-incubation. Incorporating NaturSafe into fermentation vessels revealed an inverse correlation with NaturSafe concentration and microbial diversity (P = 0.08) and that the overall microbial diversity was altered (P < 0.03) by NaturSafe concentration. The microbial community was not affected by additive type. These data suggest that NaturSafe alters fermentation characteristics and microbial community diversity toward improved rumen efficiency while reducing environmental impact.

Rumen fluid from three beef steers (480 ± 10 kg), fitted with rumen canulae, were used to investigate the impact of Ca dose and olive meal on in vitro rumen fermentation characteristics. Steers were fed a high concentrate finishing diet for 21d, and rumen fluid was collected from each steer 2h post-feeding. A 2 x 4 factorial arrangement of treatments was used for this experiment. Factors included: 1) 0 or 5% olive meal and 2) Ca dose: 0, 0.02, 0.04, and 0.08% Ca from CaCl2. A McDougall’s buffer-rumen fluid mixture (1:1; 30 mL) was added to conical tubes containing 0.5g of the ground basal diet and incubated at 39°C for 0, 4, 8, and 12h (5 replicates per treatment per time point). After incubation, supernatant was removed for VFA analysis and the remaining digesta was dried to determine DM disappearance (DMD). At 4 and 8h post incubation digestion tubes containing 0.04% Ca had greater (P < 0.001) DMD when compared to all other Ca doses. At 12h post incubation, DMD was greater (P < 0.001) in digestion tubes containing 0.02% and 0.08% Ca compared to all other Ca doses. At 8h post incubation, molar proportions of acetic acid were greater (P < 0.03) in digestion tubes containing olive meal compared to no olive meal and were greater (P < 0.001) in digestion tubes containing 0.08% Ca compared to all other Ca doses. At 12h post incubation, isobutyric acid (P < 0.01) and butyric acid (P < 0.02) were greater in digestion tubes containing 0.02% and 0.04% Ca compared to all other Ca doses. Butyric acid was lesser (P < 0.02) with olive meal inclusion at 12h. Total VFA concentrations were similar across treatments. These data suggest that Ca and olive meal can impact in vitro fermentation characteristics.

Twelve Angus steers (BW 452.8 ± 6.1 kg) fitted with ruminal cannulae were used to determine the impact of trace mineral (TM) source on digestibility, ruminal volatile fatty acid (VFA) composition, ruminal soluble concentrations of Cu, Zn, and Mn, and relative binding strength of trace minerals located in the rumen insoluble digesta fraction. Steers were fed a medium-quality grass hay diet (DM basis: 10.8% CP, 63.1% neutral detergent fiber [NDF], 6.9 mg Cu/kg, 65.5 mg Mn/kg, and 39.4 mg Zn/kg) supplemented with protein for 21 d. Treatments consisted of either sulfate (STM) or hydroxy (HTM) sources (n = 6 steers/treatment) to provide 20, 40, and 60 mg supplemental Cu, Mn, and Zn/kg DM, respectively. Following a 21-d adaptation period, total fecal output was collected for 5 d. Dry matter (P < 0.07) and CP (P < 0.06) digestibility tended to be reduced, and NDF (P < 0.04) and acid detergent fiber (ADF) (P < 0.05) digestibility were reduced in STM- vs. HTM-supplemented steers. On day 6, ruminal fluid was collected at 0, 2, and 4 h post-feeding and analyzed for VFA. There were no treatment x time interactions for VFA. Steers receiving HTM had less (P < 0.02) molar proportions of butyric acid and greater (P < 0.05) total VFA concentrations than STM-supplemented steers. Steers were then fed the same diet without supplemental Cu, Zn, or Mn for 14 d. On day 15 steers received a pulse dose of 20 mg Cu, 40 mg Mn, and 60 mg Zn/kg DM from either STM or HTM (n = 6 steers/treatment). Ruminal samples were obtained at 2-h intervals starting at −4 and ending at 24 h relative to dosing. There was a treatment x time interaction (P < 0.03) for ruminal soluble Cu, Mn, and Zn concentrations. Ruminal soluble mineral concentrations were greater (P < 0.05) for Cu at 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, and 14 h; for Mn at 4 and 6 h; and for Zn at 4, 6, and 8 h post-dosing in STM compared with HTM-supplemented steers. Copper concentrations were greater (P < 0.05) at 12 and 24 h and Zn concentrations in ruminal solid digesta were greater at 24 h in HTM-supplemented steers. Upon dialysis against Tris-EDTA, the percent Zn released from digesta was greater (P < 0.05) at 12 h (P < 0.03) and 24 h (P < 0.05), and the percent Cu released was greater (P < 0.02) at 24 h post-dosing in HTM steers when compared with STM-supplemented steers. Results indicate that Cu and Zn from HTM have low solubility in the rumen and appear to be less tightly bound to ruminal solid digesta than Cu and Zn from STM. The lower ruminal soluble concentrations of Cu and Zn in steers given HTM were associated with greater fiber digestibility.

The objective of this experiment was to evaluate the effects of Mo source (feed or water) on performance and mineral status of cows and calves fed a forage-based diet for two years (DM basis: 6.6% CP; 0.14% S, 6.7 mg Cu/kg, 2.4 mg Mo/kg). Fifty-four cow-calf pairs were stratified by cow age, BW, and liver Cu and Mo status, and randomly assigned to one of six treatments. Treatments consisted of: 1) Negative control (NC; no supplemental Mo or Cu); 2) Positive control [PC: NC + Cu (3 mg Cu/kg diet DM from CuSO4·5H2O)]; 3) NC + 500 µg Mo/L from MoNa2O4·2H2O in drinking water (Mo 500-water); 4) NC + 1000 µg Mo/L of MoNa2O4·2H2O in drinking water (Mo 1000-water); 5) Mo 1000-water + 3 mg Cu/kg diet DM from CuSO4·5H2O (Mo 1000-water+Cu); and 6) NC + 3 mg Mo/kg diet DM from MoNa2O4·2H2O (3.0 Mo-diet). Cattle were allowed ad-libitum access to feed, water, and a protein supplement throughout the experiment. During the winter months animals were housed in three replicate pens per treatment and during the summer months animals were housed in separate pastures by treatment where cow and calf feed and water intake could be measured separately. Data were analyzed as a completely randomized block design. Throughout the experiment no signs of molybdenosis were observed. There was a treatment x time (P < 0.01) interaction for cow liver Cu concentrations. Cows not receiving supplemental Cu had lower (P < 0.01) liver Cu concentrations than cows receiving supplemental Cu. Cow and calf performance, calf mineral status, cow liver Mo, and plasma and milk Mo and Cu concentrations were similar across treatments. These data indicate that Mo supplemented in water or feed at concentrations used in this experiment had minimal impact on Cu status and overall animal performance.

Twelve Angus steers (BW 530.9 ± 22.7kg) fitted with ruminal cannulae were used to determine the impact of trace mineral source on digestibility, ruminal VFA, and soluble concentrations of Cu, Zn, and Mn. Steers were fed a dairy type diet balanced to meet requirements for a high producing lactating dairy cow (DM basis: 16.8% CP, 29.2 Mcal NEm, 30.3 Mcal NEl, 33.6% NDF) for 21 d. Treatments consisted of 10 mg Cu, 40 mg Mn, and 60 mg Zn/kg DM from either sulfate (STM), hydroxy (HTM; IntelliBond) or organic (ORG; metal specific amino acid complexes) sources (n=4 steers/treatment). Following a 21-d adaptation period, total fecal output was collected for 5 d. On d 6, rumen fluid was collected at 0, 2, and 4 h post feeding and analyzed for VFA. Steers were then fed the same diet without supplemental Cu, Zn, or Mn for 14 d. On d 15 steers received a pulse dose (cannulae) of 100 mg Cu, 400 mg Mn, and 60 mg Zn from either STM, HTM, or ORG. Ruminal samples were obtained at 2-h intervals starting at -4 and ending at 24 h post dosing and analyzed for soluble Cu, Mn, and Zn. Digestibility of NDF and ADF were lesser (P < 0.05) in STM vs. HTM and ORG supplemented steers. Steers receiving HTM and ORG had greater (P < 0.05) total VFA concentrations than STM supplemented steers at 2 and 4h post feeding. Ruminal soluble Cu and Zn concentrations were greater (P < 0.001) post dosing in STM and ORG supplemented steers at 2, 4, and 6 h for Cu and 4, 6, 8, 10 and 12 h for Zn when compared to HTM supplemented steers. Results indicate that ruminal solubility of Cu and Zn differs between STM, HTM and ORG sources and trace mineral source impacts fiber digestion and ruminal VFA concentrations.

The objective of this experiment was to investigate the influence of copper (Cu) supplementation on Cu homeostatic genes in bovine liver. Liver samples were obtained from multiparous cows (n = 3 cows per treatment) from a previous experiment. Treatments consisted of: 1) no supplemental Cu (-Cu; total diet contained 7.0 mg Cu/kg DM) and 2) 3 mg Cu/kg DM (+Cu; total diet contained 10.0 mg Cu/kg DM). Cows were fed their respective diets for 420 d. Liver samples were harvested immediately upon slaughter, rinsed with phosphate-buffered saline solution, diced into small pieces, and placed into RNAlater and frozen at -80°C. Total RNA was extracted from all samples, and quantitative RT-PCR was used to determine the abundance of transcripts for proteins involved in Cu homeostasis in liver tissue. The target transcripts were: ALDH2, APOA1, ATOX1, ATP7A, ATP7B, BHMT, BLVRB, CA2, CCS, COX17, CTR1, ELN, GAPDH, GLUD1, GSS, LOXL1, PDIA3, SOD1, SOD3. The relative abundance of APOA1, ATOX1, ATP7B, BLVRB, CTR1, GLUD1, LOXL1, and SOD3 mRNA was greater (P < 0.05) in cows receiving supplemental Cu when compared to cattle not receiving supplemental Cu. These data indicate possible differences in Cu homeostasis in the liver based on Cu supplementation. Further investigation is warranted to determine if a difference in the relative abundance of identified transcripts are related to differences in associated protein production and function.

Rumen fluid from fistulated steers receiving a high concentrate diet was utilized to examine the impact of polyphenols and saponin with or without a direct fed microbial (DFM) on in vitro fermentation characteristics. Treatments consisted of: Control (no polyphenols, saponin or DFM); 2) Polyphenols (Mixed Tannins = 15 g/hd/d); 3) Saponin (Y. schidigera = 2 g/hd/d); 4) Polyphenols + DFM (DFM = 1E+7 Lactobacillus animalis + 1E+8 Propionibacteria acidilactici cfu/hd/d); and 5) Saponin + DFM. Rumen fluid was collected and combined in equal amounts from 3 rumen fistulated steers and mixed at a 1:1 ratio of artificial saliva to rumen fluid. Fermentation substrate consisted of 0.5 g of the high concentrate diet. Fermentation bottles were capped with an air-tight rubber stopper and incubated in a water bath for 12 and 18h (7 replicates/treatment/time point). After incubation, the total volume of gas produced was measured and a subsample analyzed for N, CH4 and CO2 concentrations. After gas sampling, pH, VFA concentrations, and DMD were determined. In vitro fermentation parameters were analyzed using a mixed effects model repeated measures analysis for a completely randomized block design. Acetic acid was decreased while valeric acid was increased (P < 0.05) by the Saponin + DFM treatment vs. Control. At 12h DMD was greater in Saponin, Saponin + DFM and Polyphenols + DFM (P < 0.001) treatments compared to Control or Polyphenols alone. Polyphenols produced greater amounts of CH4 /DMD than all other treatments (P < 0.01). Microbial protein production and efficiency were greater (P < 0.001), Saponin + DFM compared to other treatments. Other fermentation parameters measured were not impacted by treatments. Under the conditions of this experiment these data suggest combining DFM with Saponin or Polyphenols produces different ruminal effects from when they are fed alone.

One hundred and sixty-five crossbred steers were used in this experiment to investigate the influence of supplemental zinc (Zn) and chromium (Cr) on performance and carcass characteristics of feedlot steers fed steam-flaked corn-based finishing diet. Steers were blocked by initial BW (518.9 ± 8.4 kg) within cattle source (2 sources) and housed in pens containing 6–7 steers per pen. Pens within blocks were randomly assigned to treatments in a 2 x 2 factorial arrangement, with factors being: 30 or 90 mg of Zn/kg DM and 0.0 or 0.25 mg Cr/kg DM. Treatments consisted of: 1) 30 mg Zn/kg DM; 2) 90 mg Zn/kg DM; 3) 30 mg Zn + 0.25 mg Cr/kg DM; and 4) 90 mg Zn/kg + 0.25 mg Cr/kg DM. Zinc was supplemented as ZnSO4 and Cr supplemented as Cr propionate. Steers were individually weighted on 2 consecutive days prior to initiating dietary treatment and on 2 consecutive days at the end of the experiment. Dietary treatment were initiated 64 days prior to slaughter (total days on feed = 240). All cattle were transported to a commercial abattoir on the same day and slaughtered. Steers receiving supplemental Cr had greater final BW (P < 0.02) and ADG (P < 0.03) when compared to non-Cr supplemented steers. Additionally, hot carcass weight (P < 0.005) and marbling score (P < 0.03) were greater (P < 0.005) for steers receiving 30 mg Zn/kg DM + 0.25 mg Cr/kg DM when compared with all other treatments. Dry matter intake, morbidity and mortality, and all the other carcass measurements were similar across treatments. These data indicate that under the conditions of this experiment, Zn and Cr supplementation may influence feedlot cattle growth and carcass characteristics.

The role that Cu and Zn play in rumen microbial fermentation is not well understood. Microorganisms use small proportions of dietary Cu and Zn for catalytic, structural, and stabilizing functions. In order for microorganisms to acquire Cu and Zn, the elements must be soluble in the rumen environment. Data would indicate that practical diets fed to ruminants without Cu and Zn supplementation are able to meet the microbial Cu and Zn requirements. Therefore, rumen solubility of supplemental Cu and Zn can impact rumen microbial fermentation characteristics. Numerous factors can impact rumen solubility of minerals, such as the pH of the rumen, the concentration of dietary antagonists (Mo, Fe, S, fiber, etc.), and mineral source. Earlier research has indicated that high soluble concentrations of Cu and Zn in the rumen environment can become toxic to certain rumen microorganisms and decrease fiber digestion. Recent research from our laboratory has indicated that hydroxy trace mineral (HTM) forms of Cu and Zn are relatively insoluble in the rumen and that a greater proportion of HTM remained loosely bound to the insoluble fraction within the rumen when compared to sulfate trace mineral (STM) sources of Cu and Zn. We have also reported that supplemental sources of Cu and Zn that are highly soluble in the rumen environment (STM) can decrease fiber digestion, reduce total VFA concentrations, and can become more tightly bound to rumen solid digesta than HTM sources of Cu and Zn. The stronger binding of STM relative to HTM to the solid rumen digesta fraction may reduce absorption in the small intestine. Future research investigating the flow and passage rate of different trace mineral sources through the abomasum into the duodenum and duodenal absorption efficiency of Cu and Zn from different TM sources is needed.

Fifty-four multiparous beef cows were used to examine the effect of molybdenum (Mo) supplemented in drinking water or feed on offspring performance. Cows were blocked by body weight (BW) and age into one of 6 groups. Group were then randomly assigned to treatment. Treatments consisted of: 1) Control (no supplemental Mo or Cu), 2) Control+Cu (3 mg Cu/kg DM from CuSO4·5H2O added to the basal diet), 3) Control + 500 µg Mo/L from MoNa2O4·2H2O in drinking water (Mo 500-water), 4) Control + 1000 µg Mo/L of MoNa2O4·2H2O in drinking water (Mo 1000-water), 5) Mo 1000-water plus 3 mg Cu/kg DM from CuSO4·5H2O added to the basal diet (Mo 1000-water+Cu, and 6) Control plus 3 mg Mo/kg DM from MoNa2O4·2H2O added to the basal diet (3.0 Mo-diet). Cows were housed in dry lot pens (n = 3 cows/pen; 3 pens/treatment) and fed a low-quality grass hay diet (DM basis: 6.6% CP; 0.14% S, 6.2 mg Cu/kg, 2.3 mg Mo/kg) and a protein supplement (30% CP). Cows received their respective treatments beginning 60 d prior to breeding and remained on treatments until all calves were weaned at approximately 7 mo. of age. Calf birth weights were collected on the day of birth and all calves were weaned on the same day. Data were analyzed using a mixed effects model for a completely randomized block design. Birthweight, ADG, and 205d adjusted weaning weights were similar (P > 0.05) across treatments. These data indicate that Mo supplemented in the drinking water or the diet regardless of the inclusion of additional Cu did not impact calf performance through weaning.

Shade is a mechanism to reduce heat load providing cattle with an environment supportive of their welfare needs. Although heat stress has been extensively reviewed, researched, and addressed in dairy production systems, it has not been investigated in the same manner in the beef cattle supply chain. Like all animals, beef cattle are susceptible to heat stress if they are unable to dissipate heat during times of elevated ambient temperatures. There are many factors that impact heat stress susceptibility in beef cattle throughout the different supply chain sectors, many of which relate to the production system, that is, availability of shade, microclimate of environment, and nutrition management. The results from studies evaluating the effects of shade on production and welfare are difficult to compare due to variation in structural design, construction materials used, height, shape, and area of shade provided. Additionally, depending on operation location, shade may or may not be beneficial during all times of the year, which can influence the decision to make shade a permanent part of management systems. Shade has been shown to lessen the physiologic response of cattle to heat stress. Shaded cattle exhibit lower respiration rates, body temperatures, and panting scores compared with unshaded cattle in weather that increases the risk of heat stress. Results from studies investigating the provision of shade indicate that cattle seek shade in hot weather. The impact of shade on behavioral patterns is inconsistent in the current body of research, with some studies indicating that shade provision impacts behavior and other studies reporting no difference between shaded and unshaded groups. Analysis of performance and carcass characteristics across feedlot studies demonstrated that shaded cattle had increased ADG, improved feed efficiency, HCW, and dressing percentage when compared with cattle without shade. Despite the documented benefits of shade, current industry statistics, although severely limited in scope, indicate low shade implementation rates in feedlots and data in other supply chain sectors do not exist. Industry guidelines and third-party on-farm certification programs articulate the critical need for protection from extreme weather but are not consistent in providing specific recommendations and requirements. Future efforts should include: updated economic analyses of cost vs. benefit of shade implementation, exploration of producer perspectives and needs relative to shade, consideration of shade impacts in the cow–calf and slaughter plant segments of the supply chain, and integration of indicators of affective (mental) state and preference in research studies to enhance the holistic assessment of cattle welfare.

Twelve Angus steers were utilized to investigate the influence of molybdenum (Mo) in drinking water or feed on apparent absorption and retention of copper (Cu) and Mo. Steers were fed a low-quality grass hay diet for 14 days. Steers were then housed in individual metabolism stalls and blocked by body weight and dry matter intake (DMI) and randomly assigned within block to one of three treatments. Treatments consisted of (1) control (no supplemental Mo), (2) 5.0 mg Mo/kg DM from sodium molybdate dihydrate (Mo-diet), and (3) 1.5 mg Mo/L from sodium molybdate dihydrate delivered in the drinking water (Mo-water). Total fecal and urine output were then collected for 5 days. Dry matter, Cu and water intake, and DM digestibility were similar across treatments. Molybdenum intake was greater (P

Water is the most important nutrient in animal nutrition; however, water intake is rarely measured. The objective of this study was to determine whether previously published water intake (WI) equations for beef cattle would accurately predict WI from four experiments conducted under tropical conditions. The experiments were conducted from 2013 to 2015. Nellore (Bos indicus) growing bulls (Exps. 1, 2, and 3) and heifers (Exp. 4) were used in the feedlot trials. In all experiments, animals were fed for ad libitum DMI. The WI, animal performance, diet composition, and environmental data were collected. The prediction of WI using the current published WI equations was evaluated by regressing predicted and measured WI values. The regression was evaluated using the two-hypothesis test: H0: β0 = 0 and H0: β1 = 1 and Ha: not H0. If both null hypotheses were not rejected, it was concluded that the tested equation accurately estimated WI. To develop a WI prediction equation based on the input variables, a leave-one-out cross-validation method was proposed. The proposed equation was evaluated using similar methodology described above. All previously published eight equations overestimated WI of cattle used in the four experiments conducted in southeast Brazil. A possible explanation for the overestimate of WI is that previously published WI equations were generated from data collected from predominantly Bos taurus cattle raised under temperate climates. From the data collected from experiments conducted with Nellore cattle in southeast Brazil, the proposed equation (WI = 9.449 + 0.190 × MBW + 0.271 × T(MAX) −0.259 × HU + 0.489 × DMI, where the MBW is the metabolic BW (kg(0.75)), T(MAX) is the maximum temperature (°C), HU is the humidity (%) and DMI in kg/d), more accurately to predicts WI of cattle raised under tropical conditions.

Four hundred crossbred steers were used in a randomized complete block design to investigate the effects of supplemental Zn source and concentration, and dietary Cr on performance and carcass characteristics of feedlot steers fed a steam-flaked corn-based finishing diet. Steers were blocked by initial BW within cattle source (3 sources) and randomly assigned within block to 1 of 5 treatments. Before the initiation of the experiment, trace mineral supplement sources were analyzed for Zn and Cr. Zinc and Cr concentrations of the Zn sources were used to balance all dietary treatments to obtain correct Zn and Cr experimental doses. Treatments were the addition of: 1) 90 mg Zn/kg DM from ZnSO4 and 0.25 mg Cr/kg DM from Cr propionate (90ZS+Cr); 2) 30 mg Zn/kg DM from Zn hydroxychloride and 0.25 mg Cr/kg DM from Cr propionate (30ZH+Cr); 3) 90 mg Zn/kg DM from Zn hydroxychloride and 0.25 mg Cr/kg DM from Cr propionate (90ZH+Cr); 4) 60 mg Zn/kg DM from ZnSO4 and 30 mg Zn/kg DM from Zn methionine (90ZSM); and 5) 90 mg Zn/kg DM from Zn hydroxychloride (90ZH). Steers were individually weighed on d-2 and on 2 consecutive days at the end of the experiment. Initial liver biopsies were obtained from all steers at processing. Equal numbers of pen replicates per treatment were slaughtered at a commercial abattoir on day 162, 176, and 211; individual carcass data and final liver samples were collected. Total finishing dietary Zn and Cr concentrations were 118.4, 58.2, 114.2, 123.0, and 108.2 mg Zn/kg DM and 0.740, 0.668, 0.763, 0.767, and 0.461 mg Cr/kg DM, for treatments 1 to 5, respectively. Data were analyzed statistically using preplanned single degree of freedom contrasts. Steers receiving 90ZH+Cr had greater final BW (P < 0.04) and ADG (P < 0.03) when compared with steers receiving 90ZH. Additionally, hot carcass weight was 8.5 kg greater (P < 0.03) for 90ZH+Cr compared with 90ZH supplemented steers. Steers receiving 90ZH+Cr had greater longissimus muscle area when compared with steers receiving 90ZSM. Dry matter intake, G:F, morbidity and mortality, and all other carcass measurements were similar across treatments. These data indicate that under the conditions of this experiment, Zn source and concentration had no impact on live performance, liver Zn and Cu concentrations, and carcass characteristics. Supplemental Cr in diets containing 90 mg of supplemental Zn/kg DM from ZH improved final BW, ADG, and hot carcass weights.

A comprehensive beef study was initiated to obtain and compare representative retail beef nutrient data to include leaner and newly merchandised cuts available in the marketplace. A statistically based sampling plan was used to obtain 72 beef carcasses with nationally representative characteristics, conducted in three phases. Retail cuts were fabricated and cooked. Validated laboratories determined nutrient values using quality assurance protocols. Cooked cuts of chuck eye, ribeye, tenderloin, shoulder and top loin were compared for nutrient differences. Total fat levels ranged from 6.9 to 24.2 g, saturated fat was 2.9 to 10.5 g, and cholesterol was 80 to 98 mg (per 100 g). Nutrient content differed among three grilled cuts (p 0.05). Vitamin and mineral differences in paired cut comparisons were insignificant for most pairs (p > 0.05). The results confirmed and extended previous nutrient data, using up-to-date representative beef cuts to generate and compare data for a range of cuts for several cooking methods.

European starlings are an invasive bird species in North America that are known to cause damage to commercial dairies through the consumption of total mixed rations (TMR) destined for dairy cows. We hypothesized that large foraging flocks of starlings alter the physical composition of TMR, and that this change may be significant enough to affect milk production. To better determine if production losses could potentially occur in commercial dairies as a consequence of feed consumption by foraging flocks of starlings, we conducted controlled feeding experiments using a TMR sourced from a commercial dairy that is chronically plagued with seasonal starling damage. European starlings selected the high-energy fraction of the TMR and reduced starch and crude fat availability. Using the dairy National Research Council production model equations, the nutritional changes measured in the controlled feeding experiments could potentially reduce the productivity of dairies. Model output suggests that for Holsteins producing 32 kg of milk/d, total required net energy intake (NE I ) was 31.5 Mcal/d. Within the reference TMR, NE I supplied was 29.3 Mcal/d, whereas within the starling-consumed TMR NE I supplied was 27.7 Mcal/d. Following our nutrition experiments, we assessed the efficacy of pelleted feed as a deterrent strategy for bird damage management in commercial dairies. Six different pelleted feed treatments of differing diameter were offered to starlings. All pellets of 0.95 cm diameter or larger inhibited starling consumption by ≥79%.

Eighty-nine American Wagyu steers were used to evaluate the effects of dietary barley supplementation on feedlot performance. We hypothesized that barley supplementation would increase ADG compared to non-supplemented control animals. The experimental design was a randomized complete block design. Steers were blocked by initial body weight (BW) and randomly assigned within block to one of two treatments. Treatments consisted of 1) Control (no supplemental barley) and 2) Control diet + 0.9 kg∙animal-1∙d-1 of supplemental barley. Steers were housed in feedlot pens (all pens contained n = 4 steers/pen with the exception of one Control pen that contained n=5 steers; 11 replicates/treatment; experimental unit = pen) and fed a traditional American Wagyu finishing diet (DM basis: 68.42% DM, 14.33% CP; TDN: 74.76%, NEg: 1.16 Mcal/kg, 5.25% EE) for 270d. The basal diet consisted of grass hay, corn silage, cracked corn grain, soybean meal, corn distillers grain, white salt, ground limestone, and olive byproduct. Diets were fed once daily in the morning and barely was top dressed to the appropriate pens, immediately after the basal diet was delivered. Steers were individually weighed on d -1 and 0, and approximately every 28 days throughout the 270d experiment. Data were analyzed using a mixed effects model (PROC MIXED, SAS) for a completely randomized block design. Initial pen BW was used as a covariate in the statistical analysis of all performance data and significance was determined at P ≤ 0.05. Initial and final BW, ADG, DMI, and feed:gain were similar across treatments. Therefore, under the conditions of this experiment, these data suggest that barley supplementation for 270d to American Wagyu cattle did not impact overall animal performance.

This study examined the effects of fish meal supplementation on spatial distribution of lipid microdomains and lateral mobility of prostaglandin F2α (FP) receptors on cell plasma membranes of the bovine corpus luteum (CL). Beef cows were stratified by BW and randomly assigned to receive a corn gluten meal supplement (n = 4) or fish meal supplement (n = 4) for 60 d to allow incorporation of fish meal-derived omega-3 fatty acids into luteal tissue. Ovaries bearing the CL were surgically removed between days 10 to 12 after estrus corresponding to approximately day 60 of supplementation. A 200-mg sample of luteal tissue was analyzed for fatty acid content using gas-liquid chromatography (GLC). The remaining tissue was enzymatically digested with collagenase to dissociate individual cells from the tissue. Cells were cultured to determine the effects of dietary supplementation on lipid microdomains and lateral mobility of FP receptors. Luteal tissue collected from fish meal-supplemented cows had increased omega-3 fatty acids content (P < 0.05). Lipid microdomain total fluorescent intensity was decreased in dissociated luteal cells from fish meal-supplemented cows (P < 0.05). Micro and macro diffusion coefficients of FP receptors were greater for cells obtained from fish meal-supplemented cows (P < 0.05). In addition, compartment diameter of domains was larger, whereas resident time was shorter for receptors from cells obtained from fish meal-supplemented cows (P < 0.05). Data indicate that dietary supplementation with fish meal increases omega-3 fatty acid content in luteal tissue causing disruption of lipid microdomains. This disruption leads to increased lateral mobility of the FP receptor, increased compartment sizes, and decreased resident time, which may influence prostaglandin signaling in the bovine CL.

The objectives of this study were to quantify the mineral balance of Nellore cattle fed with and without Ca, P, and micromineral (MM) supplementation and to estimate the net and dietary mineral requirement for cattle. Nellore cattle ( = 51; 270.4 ± 36.6 kg initial BW and 8 mo age) were assigned to 1 of 3 groups: reference ( = 5), maintenance ( = 4), and performance ( = 42). The reference group was slaughtered prior to the experiment to estimate initial body composition. The maintenance group was used to collect values of animals at low gain and reduced mineral intake. The performance group was assigned to 1 of 6 treatments: sugarcane as the roughage source with a concentrate supplement composed of soybean meal and soybean hulls with and without Ca, P, and MM supplementation; sugarcane as the roughage source with a concentrate supplement composed of soybean meal and ground corn with and without Ca, P, and MM supplementation; and corn silage as the roughage source with a concentrate supplement composed of soybean meal and ground corn with and without Ca, P, and MM supplementation. Orthogonal contrasts were adopted to compare mineral intake, fecal and urinary excretion, and apparent retention among treatments. Maintenance requirements and true retention coefficients were generated with the aid of linear regression between mineral intake and mineral retention. Mineral composition of the body and gain requirements was assessed using nonlinear regression between body mineral content and mineral intake. Mineral intake and fecal and urinary excretion were measured. Intakes of Ca, P, S, Cu, Zn, Mn, Co, and Fe were reduced in the absence of Ca, P, and MM supplementation ( < 0.05). Fecal excretion of Ca, Cu, Zn, Mn, and Co was also reduced in treatments without supplementation ( < 0.01). Overall, excretion and apparent absorption and retention coefficients were reduced when minerals were not supplied ( < 0.05). The use of the true retention coefficient instead of the true absorption coefficient provided a better estimate of mineral requirements. Dietary mineral requirements were lower for P, Cu, and Zn and greater for Fe compared with previously published recommendations. This study provides useful information about mineral requirements and mineral supplementation to obtain adequate dietary mineral supply of Nellore cattle in tropical conditions.

Tryptophan (Trp), the amino acid precursor to serotonin, is a common ingredient in many commercial equine calming supplements. However, there is little scientific research to support the efficacy of tryptophan at modifying horse behavior. The objective of this study was to examine how various doses of supplemental tryptophan impact reactive behavior and physiological stress measurements in the horse. Eleven horses (9 geldings, 2 mares) were assigned a series of four treatments in a randomized crossover design. Supplemental tryptophan was provided orally at rates of 0 (CON), 20 (LOW), 40 (MED), and 60 (HIGH) mg/kg bodyweight for three days. Horses received behavior tests to measure startle response on Days 1 and 3 of treatment. Heart rate measurements and the speed at which horses fled from startling stimuli were recorded. Serum glucose, lactate, and cortisol levels were compared before and after startle tests. Additionally, a subset of samples was analyzed for tryptophan content and the ratio of tryptophan to other large neutral amino acids. Significant sedative effects were seen at LOW Day 1 on heart rate during the startle test (P = 0.05) and on change in serum lactate levels (P = 0.03). At MED Day 1, sedative effects were seen on change in serum cortisol levels (P = 0.01). Excitatory effects were seen at MED Day 3 on the time for heart rate to return to baseline after the startle test (P = 0.03). No significant effects were seen at the HIGH dose. Amino acid analysis verified treatment effect on Day 1. Across treatments, levels were similar on Days 1 and 3 (P = 0.9) while there were no significant increases in amino acids on Day 3 (P = 0.98). Overall, tryptophan supplementation had both sedative and excitatory effects on physiological stress measurements but did not change reactive behavior of horses in this study.

Feedlot diets are typically fortified with trace minerals because the basal diet contains inadequate concentrations of certain essential trace minerals or the basal diet may contain elevated concentrations of known trace mineral antagonists. Providing mineral sources that are more available to the animal may allow for lower supplemental inclusion rates to the diet. A total of 400 crossbred steers (initial BW 336 ± 9.6 kg) were used to investigate the effects of supplemental Zn, Cu, and Mn concentration and source on performance and carcass characteristics of feedlot steers fed a steam-flaked corn–based finishing diet for 145 or 159 d. The experimental design was a randomized complete block design. Steers were blocked by weight and randomly assigned within block to 1 of 5 treatments (8 pens per treatment; 10 steers per pen). Treatments consisted of (1) sulfate (90 mg of Zn/kg of DM from ZnSO4, 17.5 mg of Cu/kg of DM from CuSO4, 48 mg of Mn/kg of DM from MnSO4); (2) hydroxy trace minerals (HTM-1; 30 mg of Zn/kg of DM from Zn hydroxychloride, 10 mg of Cu/kg of DM from basic CuCl, 20 mg of Mn/kg of DM from Mn hydroxychloride); (3) HTM-2 (45 mg of Zn/kg of DM from Zn hydroxychloride, 12.5 mg of Cu/kg of DM from basic CuCl, 29.5 mg of Mn/kg of DM from Mn hydroxychloride); (4) HTM-3 (60 mg of Zn/kg of DM from Zn hydroxychloride, 15 mg of Cu/kg of DM from basic CuCl, 39 mg of Mn/kg of DM from Mn hydroxychloride); and (5) HTM-4 (90 mg of Zn/kg of DM from Zn hydroxychloride, 17.5 mg of Cu/kg of DM from basic CuCl, 48 mg of Mn/kg of DM from Mn hydroxychloride). Steers were individually weighed on d −1, 0, 55, and 112 and pen weighed on 2 consecutive days at the termination of the experiment. On d 112, 3 steers per pen were bled via jugular venipuncture. Equal numbers of pen replicates per treatment were transported to a commercial abattoir (d 145 and 159) and slaughtered, and individual carcass data and liver samples, from the same animals bled on d 112, were collected. Pen initial BW was used as a covariate in the statistical analysis, and significance was determined at P ≤ 0.05. No differences were observed for final BW (P ≥ 0.42). Overall ADG, DMI, and feed efficiency were similar across treatments. Hot carcass weight, DP, YG, longissimus muscle area, adjusted fat thickness, KPH, and marbling score were similar across treatments. Concentrations of Zn, Cu, and Mn in liver and blood samples were similar across treatments. These data indicate that under the conditions of this experiment, supplemental Zn, Cu, and Mn concentration and source had no effect on performance, mineral status, and carcass characteristics in feedlot steers.