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Background Four cases of patellar luxation in rabbits have been reported in the literature, but the prevalence and etiology are unknown. This study aimed to characterize the presentation, anamnesis, prevalence, etiology, and treatment options for patellar luxation in rabbits. Methods Medical records of 1249 rabbits presented to the Exotic Animal Service between January 2017 and March 2020 were reviewed. Data collection of the rabbits with patellar luxation included signalment, patient history, onset of lameness, position and grade of the luxation, radiographic findings, treatment, and clinical outcome. Results Six rabbits met the inclusion criteria (0.48% prevalence). The chief complaint in all rabbits was acute onset of hind limb lameness, ranging from weight-bearing to nonweight-bearing. The luxation was unilateral in all cases and ranged from grades II to IV. Four rabbits were managed medically with cage rest, but acute recurrence of the luxation was seen in two 18-month-old animals with grade III patellar luxation. Two 4-month-old animals with grade II patellar luxation responded well to medical treatment. Three rabbits, including one medically managed rabbit that reluxated, were managed surgically using soft tissue reconstruction described in dogs with traumatic patellar luxation. The methods included medial desmotomy, lateral imbrication, fabellotibial, and fabellopatellar sutures to stabilize supporting femoropatellar structures. A trochlear sulcoplasty was performed in one rabbit with grade IV luxation. At 12–24 months follow-up, reluxation had not occurred in the three rabbits. Conclusion and clinical relevance Patellar luxation is an uncommon cause of hind limb lameness in rabbits. Both medical and surgical treatment provided a good long-term outcome in five out of six patients. The surgery was relatively straightforward and took less than 1 hour in experienced hands. Further research is needed to determine the causes of patellar luxation in rabbits and to assess the indications, advantages, and complications of both treatments.

Chinchillas have been used mostly as fur animals and as animal models for human ontological diseases and only recently have been recognized as excellent, long-lived, and robust pet rodents. This review aims to provide updated information on emerging disease conditions in pet chinchillas, such as Streptococcus equi subsp zooepidemicus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Furthermore, this review article provides updated information on previously documented disorders, such as urolithiasis and middle ear disease, in chinchillas. This article is intended to serve as a complement to the current veterinary reference literature and to provide valuable and clinically relevant information for veterinarians treating chinchillas.

Background: Medical treatment of clinical otitis media and interna in guinea pigs is often unsatisfactory. Total ear canal ablation and lateral bulla osteotomy are used successfully in dogs, cats, and rabbits to treat chronic, medically nonresponsive ear disease. However, in guinea pigs this surgery can cause death. This study aimed to evaluate and describe a standardized myringotomy technique to treat guinea pigs with otitis media and interna. Methods: Ear dissections and endoscopically assisted myringotomy were evaluated on guinea pig carcasses to choose the most suitable endoscope and optics. Three client-owned guinea pigs with chronic otitis media and interna had a myringotomy with bacteriological sampling and therapeutic irrigation of the tympanic cavity performed. Anesthesia for the procedures was 25 minutes, the patients were recovered and eating within 2–6 hours, and discharged on targeted antibiotic therapy within 24 hours. Videotoscopy was performed at 7- and 14-days follow-up to assess the ear canal, healing of the tympanic membrane, and to evaluate the tympanic cavity. Repeat lavaging of the tympanic cavity was performed until the tympanic membrane incision was healed. Further follow-up occurred at 21- and 154-days postmyringotomy. Results: Two out of three guinea pigs had complete resolution of clinical signs, and the other showed clinical improvement from a 90° head tilt to a 30° head tilt. Conclusions and case series relevance: Videotoscopy assisted myringotomy under general anesthesia was a quick and straightforward endosurgical technique in three guinea pigs with chronic otitis media and interna. It allowed the collection of fluid for bacteriological culture and provided symptomatic relief.

This report describes a surgical technique for resolution of uterine prolapse in rabbits. Three pet rabbits presented within 24 hours of parturition with a red mass protruding from the vagina, which was diagnosed as uterine prolapse. In the first case, an attempt to reduce the prolapse by manual compression was ineffective. A laparotomy was used to apply internal uterine traction while simultaneously using gentle external pressure with cotton-tip applicators and resulted in successful resolution. After repositioning, an ovariohysterovaginectomy was performed in all three rabbits. All rabbits recovered uneventfully. Laparotomic repositioning of the uterus and ovariohysterovaginectomy, not previously described in rabbits, was easy to perform and permitted resolution of uterine prolapse.

Vestibular signs are rarely reported in ferrets. This report documents the successful diagnosis and management of an otitis interna without otitis media in a ferret. A 4-year-old deslorelin-implanted female ferret presented with an acute-onset, 2-day history of circling and falling to the right, and a diminished appetite. Neurologic examination revealed a right-sided head tilt associated with bilateral horizontal nystagmus, which had a fast phase to the left. These findings strongly suggested a right-sided vestibular syndrome. A complete blood cell count, serum biochemistry panel, and CT scan were unremarkable. A 1.5T contrast-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging scan of the brain showed a hypointense T2 signal abnormality of the right inner ear, without the involvement of the middle ear. The lesion showed contrast enhancement after contrast media administration in T1 sequence. The final diagnosis was otitis interna. The ferret was hospitalized and received intravenous fluids, oral enrofloxacin, and prednisolone. Clinical signs rapidly improved with treatment and the ferret was discharged after 5 days in the hospital. Treatment was continued for a further 15 days. Six months later, the ferret was healthy and not displaying any neurologic signs. Otitis interna should be included in the differential diagnosis for peripheral vestibular syndrome in ferrets. This case report highlights the importance of advanced imaging techniques to reach a definitive diagnosis.

A 4-year old, 1.9 kg spayed female rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) was presented with a non–weight-bearing lameness of the left hind limb. The physical examination was unremarkable except for the non–weight-bearing lameness. Palpation of the left hind limb revealed severe swelling of the tarsal joint and crepitus during its manipulation. Radiographs showed a comminuted fracture of the body of the calcaneus. A combination of internal and external fixation was used to stabilize the fractured calcaneus. A 1 mm intramedullary pin was placed normograde through the calcaneal tuber to the fifth metatarsal bone. Using 1 mm pins, a type IIa transarticular external fixator was placed at the level of the distal tibia and proximal metatarsal bones. The patient recovered uneventfully, and bone healing was evident 2 months after the surgical treatment. There is little information describing orthopedic treatment for calcaneus fractures in rabbits. In this case, intramedullary pinning was used with a type IIa transarticular external fixator, to stabilize the fracture and achieve a good functional outcome.

International audience; An 8-y-old, intact female degu (Octodon degus) was presented with a slow-growing mass on the tail tip. The mass was completely removed by partial caudectomy. Histologically, the last coccygeal vertebra was replaced by a lobulated neoplasm composed of large clear polygonal cells embedded in a myxoid alcian blue-positive matrix with highly vacuolated cytoplasm (physaliferous cells) and intracytoplasmic periodic acid-Schiff-positive granules. The neoplasm exhibited the morphologic features of a "classic" chordoma of humans, which is 1 of 3 distinct chordoma subtypes. Immunohistochemistry revealed dual expression of cytokeratin AE1/AE3 and vimentin, consistent with a diagnosis of chordoma. Chordomas are uncommon slow-growing neoplasms in humans and animals, arising from notochordal remnants. Depending on their subtype and location, they can have a high local recurrence rate and metastatic risk. Chordoma should be included in the differential diagnosis of a soft tissue mass on the tail of a degu, similar to the clinical situation in ferrets.

A 7.5-year-old male black-tailed prairie dog was presented for diarrhea of three weeks′ duration. Clinical examination revealed a multinodular mass in the left cranial quadrant of the abdomen confirmed with ultrasound. An exploratory laparotomy was performed with the majority of the mass and adherent spleen were removed. Histological diagnosis was severe pancreatic nodular hyperplasia associated with secondary pancreatitis and passive splenic congestion. The prairie dog recovered without complications, three weeks following the surgical procedure follow-up ultrasound showed no evidence of abnormal tissue in the pancreaticoduodenal area. Two months′ post-surgery, a follow-up computed tomographic scan revealed no significant abnormalities. No recurrence was noted 13 months following the mass removal. This article describes the diagnosis of pancreatic nodular hyperplasia in a prairie dog and successful treatment of complications arising from the condition by partial pancreatectomy.

Objective To compare the duration, quality of anaesthesia and analgesia, and quality of recovery of dexmedetomidine and methadone combined with either ketamine or alfaxalone. Study design Randomized, prospective clinical trial. Animals A group of 44 healthy client-owned cats presenting for ovariectomy. Methods Cats were randomly assigned to one of the two treatment groups: DAM (n = 22), which was administered intramuscularly (IM) dexmedetomidine (15 μg kg−1), methadone (0.3 mg kg−1) and alfaxalone (3 mg kg−1), and DKM (n = 22), which was administered IM dexmedetomidine (15 μg kg−1), methadone (0.3 mg kg−1) and ketamine (3 mg kg−1). During anaesthesia, heart rate, respiratory rate and systolic arterial pressure were measured every 5 minutes. Cats that moved or had poor muscle relaxation were administered an additional 1 mg kg−1 of either alfaxalone (DAM) or ketamine (DKM) intravenously (IV). In cases of increased autonomic responses to surgical stimulation, fentanyl (2 μg kg−1) was administered IV. At the end of the surgery, atipamezole (75 μg kg−1) was administered IM, and the times to both sternal recumbency and active interaction were recorded. Quality of recovery was evaluated with a simple descriptive scale. The UNESP-Botucatu multidimensional composite pain scale and a visual analogue scale were used to evaluate postoperative analgesia at the return of active interaction and 1, 2 and 3 hours later. Results The additional anaesthesia and rescue fentanyl requirements were similar between groups. The quality of recovery was better in the DAM group than in the DKM group [simple descriptive scale scores: 0 (0–1) and 1 (0–3), respectively; p = 0.002]. Postoperative pain scores decreased progressively over time in both groups, with no significant differences (p = 0.08) between them. Conclusions and clinical relevance Both protocols provided comparable quality of anaesthesia and analgesia and were suitable for cats undergoing ovariectomy. In combination with methadone and dexmedetomidine, alfaxalone and ketamine showed comfortable and reliable recoveries.

An alfaxalone anesthesia protocol was used to perform a coeliotomy in a goldfish diagnosed with multiple ovarian cysts. The 7-year-old, 460g, female goldfish presented for severe coelomic distension and anorexia. Full-body radiographic images were unremarkable, but coelomic ultrasound revealed multiple ovarian cysts. Ultrasound-guided aspiration of a large cyst was performed. Cytology revealed lysed leukocytes that contained numerous intracellular bacilli suggestive of septic suppurative inflammation. An exploratory coeliotomy was performed and 90mL of semi-clear fluid was aspirated from the largest cysts. For anesthesia, three plastic fish tanks were prepared for induction (10mg/L of alfaxalone), maintenance (5mg/L alfaxalone), and recovery (no anesthetic agent). Water in the fish tanks was saturated with oxygen. The goldfish was immersed in the induction tank and once the labyrinthine-righting reflex was lost (5 minutes), the fish was placed in the maintenance tank. The goldfish was then placed on a platform and supported in a supine position on wet Perlon wool. The head of the goldfish was submerged in water while the coelomic area of the surgical field was maintained out of water. During surgery, the respiratory rate (32 to 53 opercula movements per minute) and heart rate (35 to 45beats per minute) were monitored. Butorphanol (0.4mg/kg IM) was administered for analgesia. The anesthetic event was 60 minutes, with the recovery period being 35 minutes. There were no complications associated with recovery and the goldfish returned to its normal position 12 hours after surgery. Immersion anesthesia with alfaxalone permitted deep anesthesia for surgery with an uncomplicated recovery. The anesthetic protocol described appears to be a safe and easy protocol for general practitioners and, furthermore, uses anesthetic agent commonly available to veterinarians.

The clouded leopard (

Most pet rats have chronic respiratory disease, and end-stage complications are frequently fatal. Drug aerosol delivery in the form of nebulization of antibiotics, expectorants, and bronchodilators is often used as part of their treatment. As rats are obligate nasal breathers, aerosol delivery must be achieved by nasal inhalation, which has the anatomical limitation of a narrower airway lumen. In humans, aerosol delivery of many respiratory drugs is achieved by oral inhalation as it allows administration of very small particles with a concentration loss of only 20% in comparison with 85% by the nasal route. The aim of this pilot study was to determine whether a nebulized fluorescein solution would reach the lungs of rats as no data exists. Ten healthy 13-week-old female Sprague-Dawley rats were nebulized continuously for 15 minutes. The rats were euthanized, and a full postmortem examination was performed. The respiratory tract was sampled, fast-frozen in liquid nitrogen and preserved at −20 °C. Slides were examined with a fluorescence microscope to determine the distribution of fluorescein in the respiratory tract. Fluorescence was observed in the entire respiratory tract of all the nebulized rats, showing that nebulization is an efficient way to deliver medication directly into the alveoli.

CASE DESCRIPTION A 3-month-old sexually intact female chinchilla (Chinchilla lanigera) was examined for sudden onset of non–weight-bearing lameness of the right hind limb. CLINICAL FINDINGS On physical examination, the right pes was swollen. An open wound on the medial aspect of the metatarsal region exposed the second metatarsal bone, and the pes was displaced laterally. Radiographs of the right pes revealed oblique displaced fractures of the 4 metatarsal bones. TREATMENT AND OUTCOME Surgical treatment was elected, and enrofloxacin was administered prior to surgery. The protruding fragment of the second metatarsal bone was excised, and the third and fourth metatarsal bones were repaired with intramedullary pins and external skeletal fixation. The chinchilla was bearing weight on the affected limb 9 days after surgery with only mild lameness. The implants were removed 35 days after surgery when radiographs showed bony union of the third and fourth metatarsal bones and continued reduction of the fractures of the second and fifth metatarsal bones. Fifty-six days after surgery, the chinchilla was bearing full weight on the limb, and radiographs showed bony union of the third, fourth, and fifth metatarsal bones. CLINICAL RELEVANCE Findings suggested that intramedullary pinning combined with an epoxy resin external fixator may be an effective technique for metatarsal fracture repair in chinchillas. This method allowed physiologic positioning of the limb and functional hind limb use during fracture healing. Prospective studies of fracture healing in exotic small mammals are indicated.

The clouded leopard (Neofelis nebulosa) is classified as vulnerable on the International Union for the Conservation of Nature Red List of Threatened Species. However, diseases affecting this species across zoo populations are not well documented. The primary objective of this retrospective study was to identify common and significant causes of morbidity and mortality in captive-bred clouded leopards from European, Asian, and Australian institutions. Medical records from 44 zoological parks that held 271 clouded leopards from 1934 to 2017 were reviewed. Major causes of mortality in the dead leopards (n = 141) were respiratory disease (17%), maternal neglect and starvation (12%), generalized infectious disease (10%), digestive disease (10%), and trauma (10%). Six animals lived more than 20 yr and two were older than 22 yr. Diseases were recorded 344 times (average of two per leopard) in 166 living leopards. The body systems most frequently affected by disease in these 166 individuals were, in order of frequency, integumentary (prevalence = 21%), digestive (21%), respiratory (16%), musculoskeletal (12%), and urinary (10%) systems. Neoplasia (7%) was less frequent, followed by cardiovascular (5%), genital (3%), and viral (3%) disorders. Extensive, self-induced alopecia on the tail and dorsum was the most frequently reported dermatological disease, which is proposed to be called the “clouded leopard alopecia syndrome.” The most common neoplasm was pheochromocytoma (1%), followed by squamous cell carcinoma of the paw pads, pleural mesothelioma and multicentric lymphomas (

Resume Un lapin mâle castre de trois ans est presente au service des urgences pour un abattement prononce et une anorexie d’apparition aigue. A l’examen clinique, l’animal est prostre, le dos vousse et immobile. La palpation abdominale est tendue et douloureuse. Une masse est palpable dans l’abdomen cranial a droite, depassant des cotes. Un bilan biochimique et hematologique sont realises et revelent une augmentation importante des enzymes hepatique, ainsi qu’une anemie moderee. Une echographie abdominale permet de mettre en evidence la presence d’un leger epanchement, ainsi que d’un lobe hepatique de taille augmentee et avascularise dans la partie droite de l’abdomen. Un traitement chirurgical est decide. Une torsion et un infarcissement du lobe hepatique caude est mis en evidence. L’utilisation d’une pince a agrafe automatique permet la ligature du lobe a sa base puis sa resection. L’animal est rendu a son proprietaire 48 heures apres la chirurgie et une remission complete est observee lors de la visite de controle dix jours apres la chirurgie. La torsion de lobe hepatique chez le lapin est une atteinte peu frequente mais certainement sous-diagnostiquee. Le tableau clinique est caracterise par un abattement, une douleur abdominale violente et une anorexie d’apparition soudaine. Celui-ci peut se solder par une mort brutale si une intervention chirurgicale n’est pas entreprise rapidement.

Chinchillas have been successfully maintained in captivity for almost a century. They have only recently been recognized as excellent, long-lived, and robust pets. Most of the literature on diseases of chinchillas comes from farmed chinchillas, whereas reports of pet chinchilla diseases continue to be sparse. This review aims to provide information on current, poorly reported disorders of pet chinchillas, such as penile problems, urolithiasis, periodontal disease, otitis media, cardiac disease, pseudomonadal infections, and giardiasis. This review is intended to serve as a complement to current veterinary literature while providing valuable and clinically relevant information for veterinarians treating chinchillas.

The first part of this review focuses on the anatomy and physiology of the rabbit mouth. Practical understanding is critical to comprehend the dynamic pathologic changes of dental disease, which is one of the most common presenting problems in rabbits. The major theories of the etiopathogenesis of dental disease are presented. The second part focuses on non-dental oral disorders, which encompass only a small incidence of stomatognathic diseases when compared with dental disease. These diseases are primarily composed of infections (treponematosis, oral papillomatosis), neoplasia (frequently involving calcified tissue proliferation), and congenital abnormalities (mandibular prognathism, absent peg teeth, supernumerary peg teeth).

Biliary tumors are rarely diagnosed in rabbits, and there are very few published case reports of this disease within this group of animals. This case involves an approximately 6-year-old spayed female pet rabbit that was referred for an abdominal mass noted on survey full-body radiographs obtained during an examination after presenting for acute onset anorexia. Otherwise, the patient had an unremarkable history, and physical examination abnormalities were limited to a slightly distended abdomen. Laboratory evaluation revealed an isolated elevation in gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase. Ultrasonography documented a 5.4-cm multicystic, intrahepatic mass with hyperechoic septations. The mass was surgically resected and described histopathologically as a proliferation of ectatic duct structures with a simple epithelial lining, supporting a diagnosis of biliary cystadenoma. The rabbit recovered without incident and was doing well 15 months postsurgery. The case is presented with a review of all reported cases and discussion of the potential origins of this unusual tumor in the rabbit. Surgery is recommended in rabbits that are diagnosed with a biliary tumor.

The influences of high school community service participation, extracurricular involvement, and civic knowledge on voting and volunteering in early adulthood were examined using the National Educational Longitudinal Study. The major finding in this study is that both voluntary and school-required community service in high school were strong predictors of adult voting and volunteering. In addition, involvement in high school extracurricular activities was predictive of voting and volunteering. Civic knowledge was related only to voting. The authors consider the findings for their policy relevance and their contributions to theoretical debates.

Using a longitudinal design, we investigated the relation of childhood personality type to volunteering during adolescence. We hypothesized that participants with more adaptive personality functioning during childhood would be more likely to volunteer during adolescence and that membership in social organizations would mediate the relation of personality to volunteering during adolescence. Participants from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (NLSY) with complete data measures for the four time periods of study were categorized into one of three personality types during early childhood. Children assigned to the resilient personality type were more likely than children characterized by the overcontrolled and undercontrolled personality types to volunteer 8 and 10 years later in adolescence. Analyses demonstrated that the association of childhood personality to adolescent volunteering is not mediated by late-childhood membership in social institutions that may facilitate entry into volunteering. The findings are interpreted in terms of their implications for understanding personality and prosocial behavior.

This article reviews breeds and coat colors of guinea pigs and chinchillas, their husbandry, care and anatomy. The unusual reproductive physiology and reproductive diseases of these animals are described. We cover nutrition, the potential for disease on poor diets, and the vocalization of hystricomorph rodents. Skills such as handling, sexing, blood collection and drug administration, including antibiotic toxicity are described. The conclusion lists recommended textbooks, pet owner manuals, and websites.

This article reviews the husbandry, care and normal behavioral preferences of pet rats and mice. It covers recognition of signs of pain, illness and abnormal responses, and describes necessary skills such as handling, blood collection and drug administration. Animal-human responses in owning and caring for rats and mice are considered. Included is advice on suitability of pet rats with children, neutering and dental examinations. The conclusion lists recommended textbooks, pet owner manuals, instructional CDs, and websites.

Dermatophytes are fungi that can use keratin as a nutrient source. These organisms invade keratinized tissue (skin, hair, and nails) and cause dermatophytosis or ringworm. Colonization is usually restricted to the nonliving, cornified layer of the epidermis because of the inability of dermatophytes to penetrate viable tissue of an immunocompetent host. However, infection does elicit a host response ranging from mild to severe that is related to the species and strain of fungus. Zoophillic species are primarily parasitic on animals, and infections are often mild or symptomless in exotic pets. Infection with unusual or geophilic (soil-associated) dermatophytes causes severe inflammatory lesions. Ringworm has long been associated with rodents and rabbits: it is common in rabbits and guinea pigs; uncommon in chinchillas, mice, and rats; rare in golden and dwarf hamsters; and unreported in gerbils. Dermatophytosis is rare in ferrets and unreported in pet African pygmy hedgehogs. In naturally occurring infections, Trichophyton mentagrophytes is the fungal species most commonly isolated; Microsporum sp . are occasionally reported. Because dermatophytes cause a communicable disease, pets that are symptomless carriers represent a potential zoonotic source to their owners. Current methods of diagnosis and clinical management of dermatophytosis, including a survey of recent trends in therapy are presented.

Blood transfusion has been described in ferrets as a treatment for oestrus-associated anaemia and as a life-saving therapy following trauma, iatrogenic (usually surgery-induced) anaemia, autoimmune haemolytic anaemia and pure red cell aplasia. Although blood banking is a common method for storage of feline and canine blood it is not currently done with ferret blood. The aim of this study was to determine the shelf-life of ferret blood using the anticoagulant citrate-phosphate-dextrose-solution with adenine (CPDA). Two male ferrets were used as blood donors. From each ferret, 6 ml o f blood was taken from the cranial vena cava and stored in 10 ml poly ethylene terephthalate (PET) blood tubes containing 1 ml o f CPDA solution. Blood was taken from each ferret once per month for five months. These 10 blood samples were stored in a laboratory refrigerator at 4°C for four weeks. Biochemical (glucose, pH, lactate, potassium, sodium) and haematological (haematocrit, light microscopic blood smear examination) analyses were performed on the stored blood at days 0, 7, 14, 21 and 28. Biochemical analyses revealed a progressive decrease from day seven in the stored blood pH, glucose and sodium, with a concomitant increase in lactate and potassium. These results are attributable to the ongoing metabolism and deterioration of the red blood cells (RBC) while in storage, and are more rapid than described for human or canine stored blood. Haematological analyses revealed a progressive elevation of the haematocrit due to the appearance of hypochromic red blood cells and echinocytes beginning at day 7. Haemolysis was observed in the microhaematocrit capillary tube sample by day 21, and microscopic clots were visible on the blood smear by day 28. The low blood pH and the appearance of many hypochromic RBCs and some echinocytes from day 7 in CPDA-stored ferret blood, suggest stored ferret blood has a short shelf-life when compared with stored human or canine blood. We recommend that ferret blood stored in CPDA should not be used for transfusion after seven days of storage at 4°C.

The present study investigated the occurrence of endoparasites in pet squirrels in southern Italy. Fresh fecal samples were collected from 50 asymptomatic pet squirrels belonging to five different species (Callosciurus finlaysonii, n=6, C. prevosti, n=6; Tamias striatus, n=26, T. sibiricus, n=10; Sciurus carolinensis, n=2) housed both in pet shops and/or in private residences. All fecal samples were processed using the FLOTAC pellet technique to identify and count helminth eggs/larvae and protozoan cysts/oocysts. In addition, to detect Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia spp. the samples were analyzed by the Remel Xpect(®) immunoassay. Helminth eggs were detected in 9 out of 50 squirrels. Specifically, eggs of Dicrocoelium dendriticum were found in 5 squirrels (C. finlaysonii, n=2; C. prevosti, n=2; T. striatus, n=1); eggs of the pinworm Syphacia spp. in 3 squirrels (C. prevosti, n=2; T. striatus, n=1); and eggs of gastrointestinal nematoda (Nippostrongylus-like) were found in 1 subject (C. prevosti). Finally, two squirrels (C. prevosti) had multiple parasitic infections with D. dendriticum and Capillaria hepatica, and with D. dendriticum and Strongyloides spp., respectively. None of the samples were positive for Cryptosporidium spp. or Giardia spp. or any other protozoa (e.g. Eimeria). To the authors' knowledge, this is the first report of a D. dendriticum natural infection in pet rodents.

Viral diseases of rabbits have been used historically to study oncogenesis (e.g. rabbit fibroma virus, cottontail rabbit papillomavirus) and biologically to control feral rabbit populations (e.g. myxoma virus). However, clinicians seeing pet rabbits in North America infrequently encounter viral diseases although myxomatosis may be seen occasionally. The situation is different in Europe and Australia, where myxomatosis and rabbit hemorrhagic disease are endemic. Advances in epidemiology and virology have led to detection of other lapine viruses that are now recognized as agents of emerging infectious diseases. Rabbit caliciviruses, related to rabbit hemorrhagic disease, are generally avirulent, but lethal variants are being identified in Europe and North America. Enteric viruses including lapine rotavirus, rabbit enteric coronavirus and rabbit astrovirus are being acknowledged as contributors to the multifactorial enteritis complex of juvenile rabbits. Three avirulent leporid herpesviruses are found in domestic rabbits. A fourth highly pathogenic virus designated leporid herpesvirus 4 has been described in Canada and Alaska. This review considers viruses affecting rabbits by their clinical significance. Viruses of major and minor clinical significance are described, and viruses of laboratory significance are mentioned.

30 years ago, investigations into the molecular basis of the delayed-type hypersensitivity reaction (DTH) provided evidence for the first lymphokine activity: a lymphocyte-derived mediator called macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF), which inhibited the random migration of peritoneal macrophages. Despite the long-standing association of MIF with the DTH reaction and the cloning of a human protein with macrophage migration inhibitory activity, the precise role of MIF in this classic cell-mediated immune response has remained undefined. This situation has been further complicated by the fact that two other cytokines, interferon gamma and IL-4, similarly inhibit macrophage migration and by the identification of mitogenic contaminants in some preparations of cloned human MIF. Using recently developed molecular probes for mouse MIF, we have examined the role of this protein in a classical model of DTH, the tuberculin reaction in mice. Both MIF messenger RNA and protein were expressed prominently in DTH lesions, as assessed by reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction, in situ hybridization, and immunostaining with anti-MIF antibody. The predominant cellular origin of MIF appeared to be the monocyte/macrophage, a cell type identified recently to be a major source of MIF release in vivo. The administration of neutralizing anti-MIF antibodies to mice inhibited significantly the development of DTH, thus affirming the central role of MIF in this classic immunological response.

The internet contains a wealth of information on the use of mice as models for drug discovery. The author lists and describes some of these useful sites.

We investigated the effect of cholesterol feeding on plasma cholesterol concentrations, hepatic activities and mRNA levels of HMG-CoA reductase and cholesterol 7 alpha-hydroxylase and hepatic LDL receptor function and mRNA levels in 23 New Zealand White (NZW) and 17 Watanabe heritable hyperlipidemic (WHHL) rabbits. Plasma cholesterol concentrations were 9.9 times greater in WHHL than NZW rabbits and rose significantly in both groups when cholesterol was fed. Baseline liver cholesterol levels were 50% higher but rose only 26% in WHHL as compared with 3.6-fold increase with the cholesterol diet in NZW rabbits. In both rabbit groups, hepatic total HMG-CoA reductase activity was similar and declined > 60% without changing enzyme mRNA levels after cholesterol was fed. In NZW rabbits, cholesterol feeding inhibited LDL receptor function but not mRNA levels. As expected, receptor-mediated LDL binding was reduced in WHHL rabbits. Hepatic cholesterol 7 alpha-hydroxylase activity and mRNA levels were 2.8 and 10.4 times greater in NZW than WHHL rabbits. Unexpectedly, cholesterol 7 alpha-hydroxylase activity was reduced 53% and mRNA levels were reduced 79% in NZW rabbits with 2% cholesterol feeding. These results demonstrate that WHHL as compared with NZW rabbits have markedly elevated plasma and higher liver cholesterol concentrations, less hepatic LDL receptor function, and very low hepatic cholesterol 7 alpha-hydroxylase activity and mRNA levels. Feeding cholesterol to NZW rabbits increased plasma and hepatic concentrations greatly, inhibited LDL receptor-mediated binding, and unexpectedly suppressed cholesterol 7 alpha-hydroxylase activity and mRNA to minimum levels similar to WHHL rabbits. Dietary cholesterol accumulates in the plasma of NZW rabbits, and WHHL rabbits are hypercholesterolemic because reduced LDL receptor function is combined with decreased catabolism of cholesterol to bile acids.

Emerging viruses are viruses that have either newly appeared in a population or have rapidly increased their range, with a corresponding increase in cases of disease. Identifiable sources of emerging viruses are usually existing viruses of animals or humans. Two emerging viruses of significance to exotic animal veterinarians are viral hemorrhagic disease virus of rabbits, and rodent-borne hantaviruses, the cause of hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome in humans. Viral hemorrhagic disease is highly infectious and rapidly lethal and has killed large numbers of rabbits in Europe and China. It has replaced myxomatosis as the most significant viral disease of rabbits. Hantaviruses are found world-wide in many rodent hosts and are a significant source of "new" zoonoses. A rodent hantavirus was the cause of hantavirus pulmonary syndrome, which killed at least 36 people in 18 United States. Changes in natural environments, often caused by human activity, place both humans and animals in contact with previously inaccessible viruses or natural hosts. Increased international transport of rabbits and increased contact with exotic rodents carrying hantavirus are two such changes. Exotic animal veterinarians are likely to be among the first persons to see the infections and should be aware of the clinical signs and support available if they should encounter these diseases.

Case Description—A 0.65-kg (1.43-lb) 24-month-old sexually intact male albino pet rat was examined because of a 3-week history of hypodipsia, apparent blindness, and sudden change in behavior. Clinical Findings—The rat was able to move around its cage but appeared unaware of its surroundings, was visually unresponsive, and seemed unusually aggressive. The rat's hind limbs appeared mildly paretic, and it had sporadic difficulty placing its hind limbs on a flat surface. Given the rat's age, history, and physical examination findings, the primary differential diagnosis was a pituitary tumor. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the rat's brain was performed and revealed a large pituitary mass, which was indicative of a tumor. Treatment and Outcome—Cabergoline (0.6 mg/kg [0.27 mg/lb], PO, q 72 h) was administered. On follow-up MRI 2 months later, the pituitary mass had substantially decreased in size. For 6 months following the second MRI study, the rat continued to receive the same dosage of cabergoline and had no clinical signs of disease or unusual behavior. However, at 8.5 months after the start of the treatment, the rat was in poor condition and had clinical signs similar to those initially. A third MRI study was performed and revealed substantial regrowth of the mass. The rat was euthanized and a necropsy was performed; a histopathologic diagnosis of pituitary adenoma was made. Clinical Relevance—Pituitary adenomas have long been recognized as a common finding in geriatric rats (> 18 months old). Affected rats may respond favorably to oral administration of cabergoline.

Standard electrocardiographic (ECG) criteria have exhibited poor correlation with left ventricular mass and poor sensitivity for left ventricular hypertrophy at acceptable levels of specificity. To assess the ability of the high-frequency filtered signal-averaged ECG to improve ECG correlation with left ventricular mass, signal-averaged orthogonal lead recordings in 29 normal rabbits and seven rabbits with left ventricular hypertrophy due to chronic aortic regurgitation were compared with left ventricular mass corrected for body weight. Voltage of the vector QRS complex was integrated over the total duration of the QRS after separate filtering with standard frequency (0–100 Hz) low-pass and high-frequency (44 Hz) high-pass filters. Measurement of individual X, Y, and Z lead R and S wave voltage was performed on averaged, standard frequency filtered complexes, and the maximal spatial vector magnitude was determined from the standard frequency filtered vectors. Voltage of the 44 Hz high-pass filtered vector QRS complex integrated over the total duration of the QRS (high-frequency vector integral) correlated closely with indexed left ventricular mass (r = 0.84, p