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Native Green Anoles, Anolis carolinensis, and invasive Brown Anoles, Anolis sagrei, are commonly found in Florida and may be infected with the malarial parasite, Plasmodium floridense. Because no studies have directly addressed health effects of the parasite on Florida anoles, we collected blood smears of infected and uninfected anoles from Central and Southwest Florida and compared the overall leukocyte (WBC) counts, eosinophil counts, and heterophil/lymphocyte ratios. Eosinophils are generally elevated in response to protozoal infection and heterophil/lymphocyte ratios are often altered due to stress. A generalized linear model that tested contributions to erythrocyte/leukocyte ratios included infection status and locality as significant factors. We found significant differences in WBC counts between infected and uninfected lizards in Central Florida but not in Southwest Florida. Central Florida anoles also had higher mean WBC counts than Southwest Florida anoles. We did not detect significant differences in eosinophil counts or H/L ratios related to infection status. Our project is the first to examine leukocyte effects of Plasmodium infection in anoles and to provide leukocyte profiles of Anolis lizards. It appears that infected anoles sustain some negative immunological effects, at least in Central Florida. The differences in regions may be caused by the fact that Central Florida anoles still are under continuous interspecific competition whereas the Southwest Florida Brown Anoles are not because of low populations of Green Anoles. Additional studies that address leukocyte levels related to Plasmodium infection are needed to tease out the health and fitness effects on the lizards of Florida.

AimViviparity has evolved more times in squamates than in any other vertebrate group; therefore, squamates offer an excellent model system in which to study the patterns, drivers and implications of reproductive mode evolution. Based on current species distributions, we examined three selective forces hypothesized to drive the evolution of squamate viviparity (cold climate, variable climate and hypoxic conditions) and tested whether viviparity is associated with larger body size.LocationGlobal.Time periodPresent day.TaxonSquamata.MethodsWe compiled a dataset of 9061 squamate species, including their distributions, elevation, climate, body mass and reproductive modes. We applied species-level and assemblage-level approaches for predicting reproductive mode, both globally and within biogeographical realms. We tested the relationships of temperature, interannual and intra-annual climatic variation, elevation (as a proxy for hypoxic conditions) and body mass with reproductive mode, using path analyses to account for correlations among the environmental predictors.ResultsViviparity was strongly associated with cold climates at both species and assemblage levels, despite the prevalence of viviparity in some warm climates. Viviparity was not clearly correlated with climatic variability or elevation. The probability of being viviparous exhibited a weak positive correlation with body size.ConclusionsAlthough phylogenetic history is important, potentially explaining the occurrence of viviparous species in regions that are warm at present, current global squamate distribution is characterized by a higher relative abundance of viviparity in cold environments, supporting the prediction of the “cold-climate” hypothesis. The roles of climatic variation and hypoxia are less important and not straightforward. Elevation probably exerts various selective pressures and influences the prevalence of viviparity primarily through its effect on temperature rather than on oxygen concentration.

Aim: Clutch size is a key life-history trait. In lizards, it ranges over two orders of mag-nitude. The global drivers of spatial and phylogenetic variation in clutch have been extensively studied in birds, but such tests in other organisms are lacking. To test the generality of latitudinal gradients in clutch size, and their putative drivers, we present the first global-scale analysis of clutch sizes across lizard taxa.Location: Global.Time period: Recent.Major taxa studied: Lizards (Reptilia, Squamata, Sauria).Methods: We analysed clutch-size data for over 3,900 lizard species, using phyloge-netic generalized least-square regression to study the relationships between clutch sizes and environmental (temperature, precipitation, seasonality, primary productiv-ity, insularity) and ecological factors (body mass, insularity, activity times, and micro-habitat use).Results: Larger clutches are laid at higher latitudes and in more productive and seasonal environments. Insular taxa lay smaller clutches on average. Temperature and precipitation per se are unrelated to clutch sizes. In Africa, patterns differ from those on other continents. Lineages laying small fixed clutches are restricted to low latitudes.Main conclusions: We suggest that the constraint imposed by a short activity season, coupled with abundant resources, is the main driver of large-clutch evolution at high latitudes and in highly seasonal regions. We hypothesize that such conditions – which are unsuitable for species constrained to laying multiple small clutches – may limit the distribution of fixed-clutch taxa Fil: Meiri, Shai. Universitat Tel Aviv; Israel Fil: Avila, Luciano Javier. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Centro Nacional Patagónico. Instituto Patagónico para el Estudio de los Ecosistemas Continentales; Argentina Fil: Bauer, Aaron M.. Villanova University; Estados Unidos Fil: Chapple, David G.. Monash University. Faculty Of Science. School Of Biological Sciences; Australia Fil: Das, Indraneil. Universiti Malaysia Sarawak; Malasia Fil: Doan, Tiffany M.. New College of Florida; Estados Unidos Fil: Doughty, Paul. Western Australian Museum; Australia Fil: Ellis, Ryan. Western Australian Museum; Australia Fil: Grismer, Lee. La Sierra University; Estados Unidos Fil: Kraus, Fred. University of Michigan; Estados Unidos Fil: Morando, Mariana. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Centro Nacional Patagónico. Instituto Patagónico para el Estudio de los Ecosistemas Continentales; Argentina Fil: Oliver, Paul. Griffith University; Australia Fil: Pincheira Donoso, Daniel. Nottingham Trent University; Reino Unido Fil: Ribeiro Junior, Marco Antonio. Universitat Tel Aviv; Israel Fil: Shea, Glenn. University of Sydney; Australia Fil: Torres Carvajal, Omar. Pontificia Universidad Católica del Ecuador; Ecuador Fil: Slavenko, Alex. Universitat Tel Aviv; Israel Fil: Roll, Uri. Ben Gurion University of the Negev; Israel

Aim: Variation in body size across animal species underlies most ecological and evolutionary processes shaping local- and large-scale patterns of biodiversity. For well over a century, climatic factors have been regarded as primary sources of natural selection on animal body size, and hypotheses such as Bergmann's rule (the increase of body size with decreasing temperature) have dominated discussions. However, evidence for consistent climatic effects, especially among ectotherms, remains equivocal. Here, we test a range of key hypotheses on climate-driven size evolution in squamate reptiles across several spatial and phylogenetic scales. \ud \ud Location: Global. \ud \ud Time period: Extant.\ud \ud Major taxa studied: Squamates (lizards and snakes).\ud \ud Methods: We quantified the role of temperature, precipitation, seasonality and net primary productivity as drivers of body mass across ca. 95% of extant squamate species (9,733 spp.). We ran spatial autoregressive models of phylogenetically corrected median mass per equal-area grid cell. We ran models globally, across separate continents and for major squamate clades independently. We also performed species-level analyses using phylogenetic generalized least square models and linear regressions of independent contrasts of sister species.\ud \ud Results: Our analyses failed to identify consistent spatial patterns in body size as a function of our climatic predictors. Nearly all continent- and family-level models differed from one another, and species-level models had low explanatory power. \ud \ud Main conclusions: The global distribution of body mass among living squamates varies independently from the variation in multiple components of climate. Our study, the largest in spatial and taxonomic scale conducted to date, reveals that there is little support for a universal, consistent mechanism of climate-driven size evolution within squamates.

Aim Small geographic ranges make species especially prone to extinction from anthropogenic disturbances or natural stochastic events. We assemble and analyse a comprehensive dataset of all the world's lizard species and identify the species with the smallest ranges—those known only from their type localities. We compare them to wide-ranging species to infer whether specific geographic regions or biological traits predispose species to have small ranges. Location Global. Methods We extensively surveyed museum collections, the primary literature and our own field records to identify all the species of lizards with a maximum linear geographic extent of

The distributions of amphibians, birds and mammals have underpinned global and local conservation priorities, and have been fundamental to our understanding of the determinants of global biodiversity. In contrast, the global distributions of reptiles, representing a third of terrestrial vertebrate diversity, have been unavailable. This prevented the incorporation of reptiles into conservation planning and biased our understanding of the underlying processes governing global vertebrate biodiversity. Here, we present and analyse the global distribution of 10,064 reptile species (99% of extant terrestrial species). We show that richness patterns of the other three tetrapod classes are good spatial surrogates for species richness of all reptiles combined and of snakes, but characterize diversity patterns of lizards and turtles poorly. Hotspots of total and endemic lizard richness overlap very little with those of other taxa. Moreover, existing protected areas, sites of biodiversity significance and global conservation schemes represent birds and mammals better than reptiles. We show that additional conservation actions are needed to effectively protect reptiles, particularly lizards and turtles. Adding reptile knowledge to a global complementarity conservation priority scheme identifies many locations that consequently become important. Notably, investing resources in some of the world’s arid, grassland and savannah habitats might be necessary to represent all terrestrial vertebrates efficiently.

Aim: Understanding the mechanisms determining species richness is a primary goal of biogeography. Richness patterns of sub-groups within a taxon are usually assumed to be driven by similar processes. However, if richness of distinct ecological strategies respond differently to the same processes, inferences made for an entire taxon may be misleading. We deconstruct the global lizard assemblage into functional groups and examine the congruence among richness patterns between them. We further examine the species richness – functional richness relationship to elucidate the way functional diversity contributes to the overall species richness patterns.\ud \ud Location: Global.\ud \ud Methods: Using comprehensive biological trait databases we classified the global lizard assemblage into ecological strategies based on body size, diet, activity times and microhabitat preferences, using Archetypal Analysis. We then examined spatial gradients in the richness of each strategy at the one-degree grid cell, biomes and realm scales.\ud \ud Results: We found that lizards can best be characterized by seven 'ecological strategies': scansorial, terrestrial, nocturnal, herbivorous, fossorial, large and semiaquatic. There are large differences among the global richness patterns of these strategies. While the major richness hotspot for lizards in general is in Australia, several strategies exhibit highest richness in the Amazon Basin. Importantly, the global maximum in lizard species richness is achieved at intermediate values of functional diversity and increasing functional diversity further result in a shallow decline of species richness.\ud \ud Main conclusions: The deconstruction of the global lizard assemblage along multiple ecological axes offers a new way to conceive lizard diversity patterns. It suggests that local lizard richness mostly increases when species belonging to particular ecological strategies become hyper-diverse there, and not because more ecological types are present in the most species rich localities. Thus maximum richness and maximum ecological diversity do not overlap. These results shed light on the global richness pattern of lizards, and highlight previously unidentified spatial patterns in understudied functional groups.

Aim : Although most reptiles are oviparous, viviparity is a commonmode of reproduction in squamates and has evolved multiple times in different lineages.We test two prevailing hypotheses regarding the biogeography of reptile reproductive modes to evaluate the selective forces driving the evolution of viviparity in snakes. The cold climate hypothesis posits that viviparity is selected for in cold climates, whereas the climatic predictability hypothesis predicts that viviparity is advantageous in seasonal climates. Methods : We collated detailed distribution maps and reproductive mode data for 2663 species of the world’s terrestrial alethinophidian snakes.We studied the relationship between snake reproductive mode and environmental predictors. We applied both an ecological and an evolutionary approach to study snake reproductive mode by performing the analyses at the assemblage level and species level, respectively. We analysed our data at the global and continental scales to learn whether tendencies to viviparity are similar world-wide. Results : We found strong support for the cold climate hypothesis and the assumption that viviparity is an adaptation to cold environments. There was little support for the climatic predictability hypothesis. Nonetheless, viviparous species are not restricted to cold environments. Main conclusions : We conclude that viviparity is adaptive in cold climates, but not necessarily in unpredictable/seasonal climates. Current distributions may not reflect the climate at the time and place of speciation.We suspect many viviparous snakes inhabiting warm climates are members of lineages that originated in colder regions, and their occurrence in maladaptive environments is a result of phylogenetic conservatism.

Florida is home to the largest number of invasive reptile species, including the abundant Anolis sagrei, of any U.S. state. This lizard species has largely displaced the native Anolis carolinensis because of its superior competitive ability and tolerance of urbanized habitats. One facet of the invasion of A. sagrei that has not received attention in the literature is its interactions with parasites, including the malaria protozoan Plasmodium. We studied the relative prevalence of Plasmodium floridense in two Anolis species at three sympatric sites in central Florida to determine the factors that affect the parasite's prevalence, incidence, and effects on blood cell counts. After catching lizards and making blood smears, we examined slides for the presence of Plasmodium and counted relative erythrocyte/ leukocyte ratios. Of the 101 lizards sampled, 31% of A. carolinensis were positive for P. floridense, as opposed to only 11% for A. sagrei. Date of capture was also an important factor, with June having the highest prevalence and March the lowest. Erythrocyte to leukocyte ratios differed with infection, averaging 3.15 ± 1.28 SD in infected lizards versus 4.28 ± 1.03 in uninfected lizards. Reduced infection by blood parasites may have been one of the many factors that allowed A. sagrei to successfully invade Florida and to become the superior competitor throughout its range. Additional studies of the effects of Plasmodium infection on competitive ability and fitness are needed to determine whether infection is a major contributor to invasion success.

Aim Temperature influences most components of animal ecology and life history ‐ but what kind of temperature? Physiologists usually examine the influence of body temperatures, while biogeographers and macroecologists tend to focus on environmental temperatures. We aim to examine the relationship between these two measures, to determine the factors that affect lizard body temperatures and to test the effect of both temperature measures on lizard life history. Location World-wide. Methods We used a large (861 species) global dataset of lizard body temperatures,and the mean annual temperatures across their geographic ranges to examine the relationships between body and mean annual temperatures.We then examined factors influencing body temperatures, and tested for the influence of both on ecological and life-history traits while accounting for the influence of shared ancestry. Results Body temperatures and mean annual temperatures are uncorrelated. However, accounting for activity time (nocturnal species have low body temperatures), use of space (fossorial and semi-aquatic species are ‘colder’), insularity (mainland species are ‘hotter’) and phylogeny, the two temperatures are positively correlated. High body temperatures are only associated with larger hatchlings and increased rates of biomass production. Annual temperatures are positively correlated with clutch frequency and annual longevity, and negatively correlated with clutch size, age at first reproduction and longevity.

Middle America is one of the most biodiverse regions in the world, harboring an exceptional number of rare and endemic species. This is especially true of Middle American cloud forests, where montane specialists occupy restricted, high-elevation ranges making them attractive candidates for investigating historical biogeography and speciation. One such highland- restricted species, the black speckled palm-pitviper (Bothriechis nigroviridis), occupies the Central, Tilarán, and Talamanca Cordilleras in Costa Rica and Panama. In this study, we investigate the genetic and morphological variation among populations of B. nigroviridis by inferring a multilocus phylogeny (21 individuals) and analyzing meristic scale characters with a principal component analysis (64 individuals). We find B. nigroviridis sensu stricto to be composed of two deeply divergent lineages, one with a restricted range in the northern and central Cordillera Talamanca and the other ranging throughout the Central, Tilarán, and Talamanca Cordilleras. Furthermore, these two lineages are morphologically distinct, with previously unrecognized differences in several characters allowing us to name and diagnose a new species B. nubestris sp. nov. We also examine the genetic and morphological variation within B. nigroviridis and discuss biogeographic hypotheses that may have led to the diversification of Bothriechis lineages. Mesoamérica es una de las regiones con mayor biodiversidad en el mundo, que alberga un número excepcional de especies raras y endémicas. Esto es especialmente cierto de los bosques nubosos de Mesoamérica, donde los especialistas de montaña ocupan rangos restringidos de alta elevación siendo candidatos atractivos para la investigación de la especiación y la biogeografía histórica. Una de estas especies de montaña restringida, la lora pintada (Bothriechis nigroviridis), ocupa las Cordilleras Central, Tilarán y Talamanca en Costa Rica y Panamá. En este estudio, investigamos la variación genética y morfológica entre poblaciones de B. nigroviridis infiriendo una filogenia multilocus (21 individuos) y analizando caracteres merísticos de escamas con un análisis de componentes principales (64 individuos). Determinamos que B. nigroviridis sensu stricto está compuesto de dos linajes profundamente divergentes, uno con un área de distribución restringida en el norte y centro de la Cordillera de Talamanca y el otro que va a través de las Cordilleras Central, Tilarán y Talamanca. Además, estos dos linajes son morfológicamente distintos, con diferencias no reconocidos previamente en varios caracteres que nos permiten nombrar y diagnosticar una nueva especie B. nubestris sp. nov. También examinamos la variación genética y morfológica dentro de B. nigroviridis y discutimos hipótesis biogeográficas que pueden haber llevado a la diversificación de linajes de Bothriechis. National Science Foundation/[DEB0416000]/NFS/United States UCR::Vicerrectoría de Investigación::Unidades de Investigación::Ciencias de la Salud::Instituto Clodomiro Picado (ICP) UCR::Vicerrectoría de Docencia::Salud::Facultad de Microbiología

It is widely assumed that ecotourism offers sustainable development opportunities in under-developed countries, but little is known about the variables contributing to differential sustainability of multiple ecotourism ventures within a geographic region. This investigation compared differences among rainforest ecotourism sites in Tambopata, Amazonian Peru. These rainforest lodges act as stewards of the surrounding habitat. Different histories and philosophies regarding tourism resulted in varied levels of economic, social and ecological sustainability. This study quantitatively examines the differential sustainability of multiple ecotourism sites in a small geographic region. Tourism in Tambopata has a potential for sustainability of local communities and natural resources. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Because anurans are highly dependent on water for hydroregulation and respiration, they may use microhabitats that are in proximity to standing water preferentially to other microhabitats, especially during dry periods. We examined the anuran assemblage of Sachavacayoc, Peru during the dry season to test if lake proximity, distance to trees, temperature, and humidity influenced anuran abundance and diversity in the leaf litter of a rainforest habitat. We conducted quadrat searches of paired plots at the shore of a lake and 25 m distant from the lake's shore. Both overall abundance of anurans and abundance of the most common species, Leptodactylus andreae, a terrestrial breeding species, were significantly higher in the lakeshore quadrats. Temperatures at capture sites in the shore quadrats were significantly higher; frogs were significantly closer to trees in the away-from-water quadrats. Humidities at points of capture did not differ significantly with quadrat position. For eight of the 14 spec...

We examined patterns of community structure and microhabitat requirements of Pristimantis frogs at sites of high geographic proximity in the Tambopata region of southeastern Peru. Herpetofaunal surveys were conducted at five sites encompassing approximately 131 square km of Tambopata Province, including EcoAmazonia (EA), Reserva Amazonica (RA), Explorer's Inn (EI), Sachavacayoc Centre (SC), and Tambopata Research Center (TRC). In addition to sampling and identifying all species of Pristimantis captured, environmental variables, including substrate, perch height, leaf litter depth, tree cover, and time of day, were collected and analyzed. Total frog encounters, species richness, diversity, and community similarity differed significantly among sites. Generally, similarity, richness, and diversity were not closely related to geographic proximity, but total abundance was. More individuals were captured at SC and TRC, whereas more total species were captured at TRC and EI. Diversity was the highest at...

Proctoporus consists of six high-elevation lizard species distributed in the cloud forest and puna habitats of Peru and Bolivia. Proctoporus ecology is poorly understood despite a recent increase in phylogenetic research on the clade. To examine differences in diets among species, stomach contents of Proctoporus from 24 sites in central and southern Peru were analyzed, including individuals of all six species. Feeding niches were compared among the species, and differences caused by species, sex, age class, and body size were examined. Proctoporus ate prey items that were large in relation to lizard body size. Collectively, Proctoporus species had broad diets with 10 different arthropod orders represented. Beetles, ants, and spiders made up the largest proportions of diets. Diet overlap was high among species but did not appear to be directly connected to species relatedness. Sex and age class were not important determinants of diet. Despite the small body size and reclusive nature of Proctoporus lizards, they possess the ability to subdue and consume heterogeneous prey species.

The South American gymnophthalmid genus Euspondylus is distributed from Venezuela through Peru, with its highest diversity occurring in Peru. Euspondylus paxcorpus sp. nov. is a new species from Junín, Peru possessing prefrontal scales and represented by 60 specimens. The new species differs from all other species by the combination of four supraoculars with supraocular/supraciliary fusion, 5-7 occipitals, a single palpebral scale, five supralabials and infralabials, quadrangular dorsal scales with low keels arranged in transverse series only, 40-45 in a longitudinal count and 22-28 in a transverse count, 12 rows of ventrals in a transverse count and 23-25 in a longitudinal count, and no sexual dimorphism in coloration. The discovery of E. paxcorpus increases the known number of Euspondylus species to 13. Because the coloration patterns of the specimens were greatly different after preservation in alcohol, caution should be used when identifying Euspondylus species from museum specimens.

The genus Proctoporus sensu stricto is a poorly known gymnophthalmid lizard clade distributed across the Andes of southern Peru and Bolivia. Recent collecting efforts in central and southern Peru recovered specimens and tissues of all known members of the genus, enabling the first complete phylogeny of the genus to be constructed. In addition, a new species was found in Puno, Peru and is described herein. We analyzed DNA sequences of three mitochondrial genes using maximum parsimony and Bayesian MCMC methods to reconstruct a phylogeny of the group. The phylogeny suggests an ancient split between a newly discovered lineage from Puno and the remaining species that coincides geographically with its isolated range. Proctoporus pachyurus and P. sucullucu form sister species; P. bolivianus forms a clade with P. unsaacae + P. guentheri. The elevationally restricted ranges of all known Proctoporus species likely have contributed to the high species diversity found in southern Peru. Both allopatric and parapatric ...

The tribe Cercosaurini is one of the most poorly studied groups of the lizard family Gymnophthalmidae. Recent studies have suggested that two cercosauriine genera, Neusticurus and Proctoporus, are polyphyletic. The aim of the current study was to rectify the polyphyletic relationships and construct a phylogenetic taxonomy of the Cercosaurini that is congruent with evolutionary history. Neusticurus is divided into two genera, one of them new (Potamites), based on the clades recovered by molecular studies and previously discussed morphological data. Proctoporus is divided into three genera, one of which is new (Petracola), while an older name (Riama) is resurrected for another. All five genera are described and defined and taxonomic keys are presented. This study represents an important advance in rectifying the taxonomy of the Cercosaurini. Many other para- and polyphyletic genera remain in the Gymnophthalmidae and much future work on this group is warranted. © 2005 The Linnean Society of London, Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2005, 143, 405–416.

When rapid changes in environmental factors occur in tropical rain forests, anurans may behaviorally alter their vertical microhabitat in response. Friajes are extreme weather phenomena that bring cold southern winds into Amazonia. Five friaje events during 1997 and 1998 in southern Peru were studied to examine whether anuran populations differed between visual encounter surveys conducted on friaje nights versus non-friaje nights. Anuran diversity, species richness, and number of hylid individuals were significantly greater during friajes in Peru. Friajes alter anuran vertical distributions by causing arboreal frogs to descend to lower levels in order to avoid the cold temperatures and desiccating winds associated with friajes.

Proctoporus bolivianus is a gymnophthalmid lizard species that occurs at high elevations in the Andes Mountains of southern Peru and Bolivia. Extensive morphological variation in populations collected in the Department of Cusco, Peru, suggested the presence of cryptic species. To assess this possibility, we reconstructed morphological and molecular phylogenies of 13 populations of this species and also used a character-based approach to examine the morphology in more detail. We found P. bolivianus to be composed of three distinct lineages that are separated by substantial genetic distances. We erect two new species to contain unnamed lineages within the P. bolivianus complex. These three species are found within a small geographic area and are likely differentiated because of historical geographic barriers in the extreme landscape of the central Andes.

Although several investigators have discussed different herpetofaunal sampling methodologies and their effectiveness, few have quantitatively examined which methods are superior for inventorying reptiles and amphibians in rain forest habitats. I examined two years of data from Tambopata, southeastern Peru, to compare and contrast visual encounter survey (VES) and quadrat methodologies and to determine which method yields the highest number of individuals and species per sampling effort. Four separate questions were posed concerning the number of captures for short-term surveys, long-term surveys, arboreal versus terrestrial amphibian surveys, and particular taxonomic group surveys. Over most of the analyses, more individuals and species of amphibians and reptiles were captured using VES than quadrats. In addition, more unique species were recorded with VES. However, particular microhabitats and taxonomic groups were better sampled with quadrats. In long-term surveys, the methods were equivalent w...

We describe a new species of Proctoporus from the Cordillera de Merida, Venezuela. The new species is the first Proctoporus recorded from this mountain range and fills a large hiatus in the known distribution of the genus. The new species possesses a uniquely elongated second supralabial scale and a combination of other characters that distinguish it from all other congeners. Due to its distinctness from the two other species of Proctoporus from Venezuela, the new species does not appear to be a member of the P. luctuosus group or any of the other recognized Proctoporus species groups. Resumen Describimos una nueva especie de Proctoporus de la Cordillera de Merida, Venezuela. La nueva especie es la primera especie registrada para esta cordillera y cierra un vacio grande en la distribucion conocida del genero. La nueva especie posee la segunda escama supralabial exageradamente elongada, lo cual es un caracter unico en el genero, y tambien la combinacion de varios otros caracteres que distinguen esta especi...

Aim The lizard genus ProctoporusTschudi, 1845 was used as a model to test the South-to-North Speciation Hypothesis (SNSH) for species groups occurring in the Andes Mountains of South America. This hypothesis proposes that speciation of high Andean taxa followed a south-to-north pattern, generally coinciding with the progression of final uplift of the Andes. According to SNSH, a phylogenetic hypothesis of relationships of a taxonomic group occurring in the high Andes would show a branching pattern in which the southernmost species diverged first, followed by the more northern species, and so on in a northerly pattern. Location The central and northern Andes Mountains in South America. Methods A phylogenetic hypothesis was reconstructed for all species of the lizard genus Proctoporus by examining the external morphology of 341 individuals. This phylogeny was then examined to determine monophyly of the genus, distribution patterns of species groups, and congruence with SNSH. Results The genus Proctoporus did appear to be monophyletic and, therefore, it was valid to use this group to assess SNSH. The southernmost species were found to be the most basal, which was consistent with SNSH. The species occurring in the northern Andes did not exactly match the SNSH prediction. The Venezuelan and Trinidadian species did appear to be highly derived, as predicted by the hypothesis, but the Ecuadorian and Colombian species did not form a particular pattern in relation to the hypothesis. Main conclusions The SNSH does appear to have predictive power with regard to large-scale distribution patterns. The finer-scale patterns of speciation in the Andes, however, appear to be a more complex phenomenon that cannot be fully explained by a simple hypothesis. It is important to have a testable hypothesis in hand with which to compare data from disparate species groups. The incorporation of phylogenetic data of other high Andean taxa with similar distribution patterns is necessary to determine the full utility of SNSH in explaining evolutionary patterns in the Andes of South America.

Neotropical herpetofaunas have been studied at selected Central and South American sites, but intra-regional analyses in the Neotropics have not been possible due to lack of long-term data. A particular problem in interpreting herpetofaunal communities is the large geographic distances between the known localities. Such sampling does not take into account the patchiness of the habitat and this prevents analysis of regional diversity. In this study, five Neotropical herpetofaunal communities within a small geographic area (1600 km 2 ) were examined to determine if species composition varies microgeographically. We sampled sites within the Tambopata Province, southeastern Peru. The five sites were surveyed intensively during a two-year period. The herpetofauna of the Tambopata region includes 210 species and, because of extensive sampling, has the highest overall herpetofaunal richness of any known region. Sites were compared using the coefficient of biogeographic resemblance (CBR). The CBRs were similar among all sites but the differences were determined primarily by their positions with respect to the two main rivers of the region and not directly correlated to distance among sites. Sites were also examined by partitioning their species into six microhabitat classes. Sites were found to differ in their proportions of reptiles and amphibians in each microhabitat class. The results of our study were compared to former investigations of various sites within the Tambopata region and elsewhere. This study identified more species than past investigations in all cases. Species composition was shown to vary at a microgeographic level. Based on our findings, we recommend that future studies examine multiple sites within each region to fully comprehend the herpetofaunal communities that exist in complex rain forest habitats.

In this Article originally published, owing to a technical error, the author ‘Laurent Chirio’ was mistakenly designated as a corresponding author in the HTML version, the PDF was correct. This error has now been corrected in the HTML version. Further, in Supplementary Table 3, the authors misspelt the surname of ‘Danny Meirte’; this file has now been replaced.

We report new locality records of Cercosaura vertebralis O'Shaughnessy, 1879 in Peru, after more than 40 years since the discovery of the single known Peruvian specimen. The Peruvian range of Cercosaura vertebralis, which was previously restricted to Piura, is extended into the Cajamarca region (Tabaconas Namballe and La Granja). We also examined intraspecific variation of the species throughout its range and provide a hemipenial description from the new specimens. In addition, we comment on the population status of C. vertebralis in Peru, and provide data supporting the synonymy of C. ampuedai with C. vertebralis.

One class of tourism that attempts to minimise the negative effects of traditional tourism is ecotourism. Much of the current ecotourism planning is only guesswork because few studies on the various impacts of ecotourism have been undertaken. This review collected data from ecotourism articles and scored each on seven separate ecotourism effect criteria to be used for analysis. Of the factors analysed, geographic location had a significant effect on tourism impacts while date and ownership of the conservation area did not. Ecotourism projects would benefit by using these criteria to quantitatively measure the state of their area. The results of this review illustrate that while ecotourism planning is in its infancy, ecotourism projects have the potential to be tools for sustainable development.

MB and MR were funded by a grant from the Esmee Fairbairn Foundation, BC by the Rufford Foundation. North American and Mexican species assessments were funded by the Regina Bauer Frankenberg Foundation for Animal Welfare. Species assessments under the Global Reptile Assessment (GRA) initiative are supported by: Moore Family Foundation, Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation, Conservation International, Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund (CEPF), and European Commission. Additional acknowledgements are included in the online supplementary material. The assessment workshop for Mexican reptiles was kindly hosted by Ricardo Ayala and the station personnel of the Estacion de Biologia Chamela, Institut de Biologia, Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico. Workshop and logistical organisation of the Philippines assessments was provided by the Conservation International Philippines Office, in particular Ruth Grace Rose Ambal, Melizar V. Duya and Oliver Coroza. Workshop and logistical organisation for the European Reptile and Amphibian Assessments was provided by Doga Dernegi, in particular Ozge Balkiz and Ozgur Koc. Workshop and logistical organisation for assessments of sea snakes and homalopsids was provided by the International Sea Turtle Symposium and Dr. Colin Limpus (Australian Government Environmental Protection Agency). Special thanks to Jenny Chapman (EPA) and Chloe Schaub le (ISTS). Thank you also to Dr. Gordon Guymer (Chief Botanist Director of Herbarium) for accommodating us at the Herbarium in the Brisbane Botanical Gardens, and Mark Read and Kirsten Dobbs (Great Barrier Reef Marine Parks Association) and Dave Pollard and Brad Warren (Ocean Watch Australia) for institutional support. Mohamed Bin Zayed Species Conservation Fund, Conservation International Madagascar and the Darwin Initiative contributed to funding the costs of the Madagascar reptile workshop., Effective and targeted conservation action requires detailed information about species, their distribution, systematics and ecology as well as the distribution of threat processes which affect them. Knowledge of reptilian diversity remains surprisingly disparate, and innovative means of gaining rapid insight into the status of reptiles are needed in order to highlight urgent conservation cases and inform environmental policy with appropriate biodiversity information in a timely manner. We present the first ever global analysis of extinction risk in reptiles, based on a random representative sample of 1500 species (16% of all currently known species). To our knowledge, our results provide the first analysis of the global conservation status and distribution patterns of reptiles and the threats affecting them, highlighting conservation priorities and knowledge gaps which need to be addressed urgently to ensure the continued survival of the world’s reptiles. Nearly one in five reptilian species are threatened with extinction, with another one in five species classed as Data Deficient. The proportion of threatened reptile species is highest in freshwater environments, tropical regions and on oceanic islands, while data deficiency was highest in tropical areas, such as Central Africa and Southeast Asia, and among fossorial reptiles. Our results emphasise the need for research attention to be focussed on tropical areas which are experiencing the most dramatic rates of habitat loss, on fossorial reptiles for which there is a chronic lack of data, and on certain taxa such as snakes for which extinction risk may currently be underestimated due to lack of population information. Conservation actions specifically need to mitigate the effects of human-induced habitat loss and harvesting, which are the predominant threats to reptiles., Esmee Fairbairn Foundation, Rufford Foundation, Regina Bauer Frankenberg Foundation for Animal Welfare, Moore Family Foundation, Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation, Conservation International, Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund (CEPF), European Commission Joint Research Centre, Zayed Species Conservation Fund, Conservation International Madagascar, Darwin Initiative

Phylogenetic studies incorporating multiple loci, and multiple genomes, are becoming increasingly common. Coincident with this trend in genetic sampling, model-based likelihood techniques including Bayesian phylogenetic methods continue to gain popularity. Few studies, however, have examined model fit and sensitivity to such potentially heterogeneous data partitions within combined data analyses using empirical data. Here we investigate the relative model fit and sensitivity of Bayesian phylogenetic methods when alternative site-specific partitions of among-site rate variation (with and without autocorrelated rates) are considered. Our primary goal in choosing a best-fit model was to employ the simplest model that was a good fit to the data while optimizing topology and/or Bayesian posterior probabilities. Thus, we were not interested in complex models that did not practically affect our interpretation of the topology under study. We applied these alternative models to a four-gene data set including one protein-coding nuclear gene (c-mos), one protein-coding mitochondrial gene (ND4), and two mitochondrial rRNA genes (12S and 16S) for the diverse yet poorly known lizard family Gymnophthalmidae. Our results suggest that the best-fit model partitioned among-site rate variation separately among the c-mos, ND4, and 12S + 16S gene regions. We found this model yielded identical topologies to those from analyses based on the GTR+I+G model, but significantly changed posterior probability estimates of clade support. This partitioned model also produced more precise (less variable) estimates of posterior probabilities across generations of long Bayesian runs, compared to runs employing a GTR+I+G model estimated for the combined data. We use this three-way gamma partitioning in Bayesian analyses to reconstruct a robust phylogenetic hypothesis for the relationships of genera within the lizard family Gymnophthalmidae. We then reevaluate the higher-level taxonomic arrangement of the Gymnophthalmidae. Based on our findings, we discuss the utility of nontraditional parameters for modeling among-site rate variation and the implications and future directions for complex model building and testing.