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[EN] Repair and removal of damaged mitochondria is a key process for eukaryotic cell homeostasis. Here we investigate in the yeast model how different protein complexes of the mitochondrial electron transport chain are subject to specific degradation upon high respiration load and organelle damage. We find that the turnover of subunits of the electron transport complex I equivalent and complex III is preferentially stimulated upon high respiration rates. Particular mitochondrial proteases, but not mitophagy, are involved in this activated degradation. Further mitochondrial damage by valinomycin treatment of yeast cells triggers the mitophagic removal of the same respiratory complexes. This selective protein degradation depends on the mitochondrial fusion and fission apparatus and the autophagy adaptor protein Atg11, but not on the mitochondrial mitophagy receptor Atg32. Loss of autophagosomal protein function leads to valinomycin sensitivity and an overproduction of reactive oxygen species upon mitochondrial damage. A specific event in this selective turnover of electron transport chain complexes seems to be the association of Atg11 with the mitochondrial network, which can be achieved by overexpression of the Atg11 protein even in the absence of Atg32. Furthermore, the interaction of various Atg11 molecules via the C-terminal coil domain is specifically and rapidly stimulated upon mitochondrial damage and could therefore be an early trigger of selective mitophagy in response to the organelles dysfunction. Our work indicates that autophagic quality control upon mitochondrial damage operates in a selective manner. more...

Here, we review and update the recent advances in the metabolic control during the adaptive response of budding yeast to hyperosmotic and salt stress, which is one of the best understood signaling events at the molecular level. This environmental stress can be easily applied and hence has been exploited in the past to generate an impressively detailed and comprehensive model of cellular adaptation. It is clear now that this stress modulates a great number of different physiological functions of the cell, which altogether contribute to cellular survival and adaptation. Primary defense mechanisms are the massive induction of stress tolerance genes in the nucleus, the activation of cation transport at the plasma membrane, or the production and intracellular accumulation of osmolytes. At the same time and in a coordinated manner, the cell shuts down the expression of housekeeping genes, delays the progression of the cell cycle, inhibits genomic replication, and modulates translation efficiency to optimize the response and to avoid cellular damage. To this fascinating interplay of cellular functions directly regulated by the stress, we have to add yet another layer of control, which is physiologically relevant for stress tolerance. Salt stress induces an immediate metabolic readjustment, which includes the up-regulation of peroxisomal biomass and activity in a coordinated manner with the reinforcement of mitochondrial respiratory metabolism. Our recent findings are consistent with a model, where salt stress triggers a metabolic shift from fermentation to respiration fueled by the enhanced peroxisomal oxidation of fatty acids. We discuss here the regulatory details of this stress-induced metabolic shift and its possible roles in the context of the previously known adaptive functions. more...

Repair and removal of damaged mitochondria is a key process for eukaryotic cell homeostasis. Here we investigate in the yeast model how different protein complexes of the mitochondrial electron transport chain are subject to specific degradation upon high respiration load and organelle damage. We find that the turnover of subunits of the electron transport complex I equivalent and complex III is preferentially stimulated upon high respiration rates. Particular mitochondrial proteases, but not mitophagy, are involved in this activated degradation. Further mitochondrial damage by valinomycin treatment of yeast cells triggers the mitophagic removal of the same respiratory complexes. This selective protein degradation depends on the mitochondrial fusion and fission apparatus and the autophagy adaptor protein Atg11, but not on the mitochondrial mitophagy receptor Atg32. Loss of autophagosomal protein function leads to valinomycin sensitivity and an overproduction of reactive oxygen species upon mitochondrial damage. A specific event in this selective turnover of electron transport chain complexes seems to be the association of Atg11 with the mitochondrial network, which can be achieved by overexpression of the Atg11 protein even in the absence of Atg32. Furthermore, the interaction of various Atg11 molecules via the C-terminal coil domain is specifically and rapidly stimulated upon mitochondrial damage and could therefore be an early trigger of selective mitophagy in response to the organelles dysfunction. Our work indicates that autophagic quality control upon mitochondrial damage operates in a selective manner. more...

[EN] Here, we review and update the recent advances in the metabolic control during the adaptive response of budding yeast to hyperosmotic and salt stress, which is one of the best understood signaling events at the molecular level. This environmental stress can be easily applied and hence has been exploited in the past to generate an impressively detailed and comprehensive model of cellular adaptation. It is clear now that this stress modulates a great number of different physiological functions of the cell, which altogether contribute to cellular survival and adaptation. Primary defense mechanisms are the massive induction of stress tolerance genes in the nucleus, the activation of cation transport at the plasma membrane, or the production and intracellular accumulation of osmolytes. At the same time and in a coordinated manner, the cell shuts down the expression of housekeeping genes, delays the progression of the cell cycle, inhibits genomic replication, and modulates translation efficiency to optimize the response and to avoid cellular damage. To this fascinating interplay of cellular functions directly regulated by the stress, we have to add yet another layer of control, which is physiologically relevant for stress tolerance. Salt stress induces an immediate metabolic readjustment, which includes the up-regulation of peroxisomal biomass and activity in a coordinated manner with the reinforcement of mitochondrial respiratory metabolism. Our recent findings are consistent with a model, where salt stress triggers a metabolic shift from fermentation to respiration fueled by the enhanced peroxisomal oxidation of fatty acids. We discuss here the regulatory details of this stress-induced metabolic shift and its possible roles in the context of the previously known adaptive functions. more...

[EN] Eukaryotic cells adapt to environmental changes ("stress") through signal transduction pathways which coordinate complex adaptive responses. Mitochondria are able to respond to different external stimuli in a dynamic manner. In previous studies, mitochondria were shown to play an important role in adaptation to hyperosmotic stress and defects in many mitochondrial functions cause sensitivity to this stress. In the present work, we investigate novel mechanisms of mitochondrial adaptation in response to stress. First of all, the role of the mitochondrial pyruvate carrier complex (MPC) in this adaptation was analyzed. This carrier is composed by three proteins in yeast: Mpc1, Mpc2 and Mpc3. MPC3 is upregulated upon salt stress and during a diauxic shift, which leads to an increase in Mpc3 protein abundance. HOG pathway, implicated in osmostress response, is needed for the efficient induction of MPC3 transcription. Our analysis suggests that amino acid biosynthesis, respiration rate and oxidative stress tolerance are regulated by changes in the Mpc protein composition of the mitochondria. In this way, Mpc2 is most abundant under fermentative non stress conditions and important for amino acid biosynthesis, while Mpc3 is the most abundant family member upon salt stress or when high respiration rates are required. In addition, Mpc3 stimulates respiration and enhances tolerance to oxidative stress. Therefore, our results identify that the regulated mitochondrial pyruvate uptake via different Mpc proteins might be an important determinant of respiration rate and stress resistance. Secondly, since pyruvate flux to mitochondria is modified according to environmental conditions, here we study also possible changes in electron transport chain complex subunits. We found that a switch to partially or completely respiratory energy sources causes selective degradation of respiratory complex I and III subunits. Moreover, this degradation was also observed when there was a specif, [ES] Las células eucariotas responden a cambios en su entorno ("estrés") a través de rutas de transmisión de señales que coordinan respuestas adaptativas muy complejas. Las mitocondrias son orgánulos muy dinámicos capaces de responder a diversos estímulos externos. En estudios anteriores, se demostró que la mitocondria tiene un papel en la adaptación a estrés hiperosmótico, ya que los mutantes con defectos en diversos componentes mitocondriales muestran mayor sensibilidad a este estrés. En este trabajo, se ha investigado nuevos mecanismos de adaptación de la actividad mitocondrial en respuesta a estrés. Por una parte, se ha estudiado el papel del complejo transportador de piruvato mitocondrial (MPC) en esta adaptación. Este transportador está conformado por tres proteínas en levadura: Mpc1, Mpc2 y Mpc3. El gen MPC3 sufre una fuerte inducción transcripcional en condiciones de estrés osmótico y cambio diáuxico, que se traduce en un aumento de la cantidad de proteína Mpc3. Esta regulación se vio que dependía de la ruta HOG, implicada en la respuesta a estrés osmótico, y no ocurría en Mpc1 y Mpc2. Se comprobó, además, que los cambios en la composición de MPC en la mitocondria regulaban la biosíntesis de aminoácidos, la capacidad respiratoria y la tolerancia a estrés oxidativo de la célula. De esta forma, Mpc2 es la proteína más abundante en condiciones fermentativas sin estrés y es necesaria para la biosíntesis de aminoácidos; mientras que Mpc3 es el miembro más abundante ante estrés salino o cuando se requiere una elevada tasa respiratoria. Además, Mpc3 estimula la respiración y aumenta la tolerancia a estrés oxidativo. Por tanto, nuestros resultados identifican que la entrada de piruvato en la mitocondria y su posterior uso están regulados por la composición específica de las subunidades del transportador y determina la tasa respiratoria y la resistencia a estrés. Por otra parte, dado que el flujo de piruvato a la mitocondria se modificaba en función de las condicione, [CA] Les cèl·lules eucariotes responen a canvis al seu entorn ("estrès") a través de rutes de transmissió de senyals que coordinen respostes adaptatives molt complexes. Les mitocòndries són orgànuls molt dinàmics capaços de respondre a diversos estímuls externs. A estudis previs, es va demostrar que la mitocòndria té un paper en l'adaptació a estrès hiperosmòtic, ja què els mutants amb defectes en diversos components mitocondrials mostren major sensibilitat a aquest estrès. A aquest treball, s'ha analitzat nous mecanismes d'adaptació de l'activitat mitocondrial en resposta a estrès. Per una banda, s'ha estudiat el paper del complex transportador de piruvat mitocondrial (MPC) a aquesta adaptació. Aquest transportador està conformat per tres proteïnes en llevat: Mpc1, Mpc2 i Mpc3. El gen MPC3 pateix una forta inducció transcripcional en condicions d'estrès osmòtic i canvi diàuxic, que es tradueix en un augment de la quantitat de proteïna Mpc3. Aquesta regulació depèn de la ruta HOG, implicada en la resposta a estrès osmòtic, i no tenia lloc en Mpc1 i Mpc2. A més, es va comprovar que els canvis en la composició de MPC a la mitocòndria regulaven la biosíntesi de aminoàcids, la capacitat respiratòria i la tolerància a estrès oxidatiu de la cèl·lula. D'aquesta manera, Mpc2 és la proteïna més abundant en condicions fermentatives en absència d'estrès, mentre que Mpc3 és el membre més abundant davant d'estrès salí o quan és necessària una elevada taxa respiratòria. A més, Mpc3 estimula la respiració i augmenta la resistència a estrès oxidatiu. Per tant, els nostres resultats identifiquen que l'entrada de piruvat a la mitocòndria i el seu posterior ús estan regulats per la composició específica de les subunitats del transportador i determina la taxa respiratòria i la resistència a estrès. Per altra banda, com el flux de piruvat a la mitocòndria es modifica en funció de les condicions ambientals, es va voler estudiar què succeïa als complexes de la cadena de transport electròn more...

[EN] Eukaryotic cells adapt to environmental changes ("stress") through signal transduction pathways which coordinate complex adaptive responses. Mitochondria are able to respond to different external stimuli in a dynamic manner. In previous studies, mitochondria were shown to play an important role in adaptation to hyperosmotic stress and defects in many mitochondrial functions cause sensitivity to this stress. In the present work, we investigate novel mechanisms of mitochondrial adaptation in response to stress. First of all, the role of the mitochondrial pyruvate carrier complex (MPC) in this adaptation was analyzed. This carrier is composed by three proteins in yeast: Mpc1, Mpc2 and Mpc3. MPC3 is upregulated upon salt stress and during a diauxic shift, which leads to an increase in Mpc3 protein abundance. HOG pathway, implicated in osmostress response, is needed for the efficient induction of MPC3 transcription. Our analysis suggests that amino acid biosynthesis, respiration rate and oxidative stress tolerance are regulated by changes in the Mpc protein composition of the mitochondria. In this way, Mpc2 is most abundant under fermentative non stress conditions and important for amino acid biosynthesis, while Mpc3 is the most abundant family member upon salt stress or when high respiration rates are required. In addition, Mpc3 stimulates respiration and enhances tolerance to oxidative stress. Therefore, our results identify that the regulated mitochondrial pyruvate uptake via different Mpc proteins might be an important determinant of respiration rate and stress resistance. Secondly, since pyruvate flux to mitochondria is modified according to environmental conditions, here we study also possible changes in electron transport chain complex subunits. We found that a switch to partially or completely respiratory energy sources causes selective degradation of respiratory complex I and III subunits. Moreover, this degradation was also observed when there was a specif, [ES] Las células eucariotas responden a cambios en su entorno ("estrés") a través de rutas de transmisión de señales que coordinan respuestas adaptativas muy complejas. Las mitocondrias son orgánulos muy dinámicos capaces de responder a diversos estímulos externos. En estudios anteriores, se demostró que la mitocondria tiene un papel en la adaptación a estrés hiperosmótico, ya que los mutantes con defectos en diversos componentes mitocondriales muestran mayor sensibilidad a este estrés. En este trabajo, se ha investigado nuevos mecanismos de adaptación de la actividad mitocondrial en respuesta a estrés. Por una parte, se ha estudiado el papel del complejo transportador de piruvato mitocondrial (MPC) en esta adaptación. Este transportador está conformado por tres proteínas en levadura: Mpc1, Mpc2 y Mpc3. El gen MPC3 sufre una fuerte inducción transcripcional en condiciones de estrés osmótico y cambio diáuxico, que se traduce en un aumento de la cantidad de proteína Mpc3. Esta regulación se vio que dependía de la ruta HOG, implicada en la respuesta a estrés osmótico, y no ocurría en Mpc1 y Mpc2. Se comprobó, además, que los cambios en la composición de MPC en la mitocondria regulaban la biosíntesis de aminoácidos, la capacidad respiratoria y la tolerancia a estrés oxidativo de la célula. De esta forma, Mpc2 es la proteína más abundante en condiciones fermentativas sin estrés y es necesaria para la biosíntesis de aminoácidos; mientras que Mpc3 es el miembro más abundante ante estrés salino o cuando se requiere una elevada tasa respiratoria. Además, Mpc3 estimula la respiración y aumenta la tolerancia a estrés oxidativo. Por tanto, nuestros resultados identifican que la entrada de piruvato en la mitocondria y su posterior uso están regulados por la composición específica de las subunidades del transportador y determina la tasa respiratoria y la resistencia a estrés. Por otra parte, dado que el flujo de piruvato a la mitocondria se modificaba en función de las condicione more...

[ES] La levadura Saccharomyces cerevisiae contiene una familia de genes que codifican para proteínas ortólogas de la proteína de cerebro humana 44 (BRP44). Estas pequeñas proteínas mitocondriales están extraordinariamente conservadas a lo largo de la evolución desde las células de levadura a las células humanas. Esta familia proteica está codificada por los genes de levadura genes YGR243 (FMP43, SMOP1), YHR162W (SMOP2) y YGL080W (SMOP3). Se les ha renombrado como ¿SMOP¿ (Small Mitochondrial OsmoProtectant), debido a la fuerte inducción transcripcional del gen YGR243W mediante estrés hiperosmótico. En este trabajo se investiga cómo la ganancia y pérdida de la función de las proteínas Smop afecta a la tolerancia a estrés osmótico y oxidativo, a la producción de especies reactivas de oxígeno, y a la función y morfología mitocondrial. La morfología mitocondrial no se veía afectada en las cepas mutantes de deleción y de sobreexpresión de los genes SMOP. Además, se muestra que la deleción de genes SMOP individuales o de la familia entera no comprometía el crecimiento respiratorio o bajo condiciones severas de estrés osmótico. Sin embargo, las células ¿smop2 mostraban hipersensibilidad a estrés oxidativo. La sobreexpresión de los genes SMOP causaba la inhibición del crecimiento respiratorio y una disminución de la producción de ROS en un medio con fuentes de carbono no fermentables, pero no bajo condiciones de estrés oxidativo o salino. Estos datos preliminares sugieren un papel de las proteínas Smop en la regulación de la capacidad respiratoria y de la producción de ROS., [EN] The yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae contains a family of genes encoding orthologs of the human brain protein 44 (BRP44). These small mitochondrial proteins are extraordinarily conserved through evolution from yeast to human cells. The protein family is encoded by the yeast genes YGR243 (FMP43, SMOP1), YHR162W (SMOP2) and YGL080W (SMOP3). They have been renamed ¿SMOP¿ for ¿Small Mitochondrial OsmoProtectant¿ because of the strong transcriptional induction of the YGR243W gene by hyperosmotic stress. Here we investigate how the loss and gain of function of Smop proteins affect osmotic and oxidative stress tolerance, the production of reactive oxygen species and the mitochondrial function and morphology. Mitochondrial morphology was not affected by the deletion or overexpression of the SMOP genes. We show that deletion of individual SMOP genes or of the entire family did not compromise respiratory growth or growth upon severe osmotic stress. However, ¿smop2 cells showed hypersensivity to oxidative stress. Overexpression of the SMOP genes caused inhibition of respiratory growth to different extent and reduced ROS production upon non fermentable carbon sources, but not upon oxidative or salt stress treatment. These preliminary data suggest a role for the Smop proteins in the regulation of respiratory capacity and ROS production. more...