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Based on the scanning of photothermal optical coherence tomography (PT-OCT), the photothermal behavior of a flowing medium generated by the enhanced absorption of localized surface plasmon resonance of incorporated Au nanorings (NRIs) is observed. In particular, the effects of air bubble generation and thermally induced bubble size oscillation in a flowing medium through the incorporation of Au NRIs and modulated laser illumination are demonstrated. The size oscillation of the air bubble produces the vibration of the flowing medium, which is synchronized with the laser modulation, for generating PT-OCT signal. At the resonance frequency of flowing-medium vibration, the PT-OCT signal reaches the maximum level. The resonance frequency is related to the mass density and viscosity of the flowing medium and is independent of the flow speed of the medium in a vessel. Such a relation can be used for in situ monitoring the mass density and viscosity of a flowing medium.

The photoelectrochemical (PEC) liftoff results and the performances of fabricated vertical light-emitting diodes (LEDs) among four samples of different PEC etching sacrificial structures are compared. With a dopant-graded n-GaN sacrificial layer, the PEC liftoff time is decreased. With an n-AlGaN etching-stop layer, the roughness of PEC-etching surface is significantly reduced for simplifying the following device process. Illuminated by an ultraviolet LED array at 365 nm in emission wavelength, the PEC liftoff of a 2-in wafer with device isolation can be completed in 25 min. The performances of the fabricated vertical LEDs with different sacrificial structures are similar.

The heart chamber of an adult Drosophila is approximately 2 mm long and 0.5 mm wide, and the interwall separation of different heart portions during systole and diastole range from tens of micrometers to hundreds of micrometers. Furthermore, the heart chamber has a curved structure, which results in the larger differences in depth between the different heart portions. However, applying the wavelength calibration process before Fourier transform in an optical coherence tomography (OCT) system may cause degradation in system sensitivity and longitudinal resolution when the optical path difference between the reference and sample arms increases, which makes imaging the entire heart chamber difficult with OCT system. Additionally, since the heartbeat rate of Drosophila is approximately 6 beats/s, a high-speed OCT system is necessary to record the dynamics of the heat beats. In this study, we propose a new approach to visualize the entire heart chamber including the conical chamber and four ostia portions, and to observe the retrograde and anterograde beats. A buffered Fourier-domain mode-locked (FDML) laser is implemented to provide a high imaging speed. Two output ports of the buffered FDML laser are used simultaneously to scan the different heart portions of Drosophila, and the effective A-scan rate of the OCT system can be doubled. Then, the two scanned images are merged into a single B-mode scan. Furthermore, with dual-beam OCT system, the beating behaviors of the different heart portions from 7-day-old and 21-day-old flies are compared. (© 2013 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim)

A procedure for computer analyzing an optical coherence tomography (OCT) image of normal and precancerous oral mucosae is demonstrated to reasonably plot the boundary between epithelium (EP) and lamina propria (LP) layers, determine the EP thickness, and estimate the range of dysplastic cell distribution based on standard deviation (SD) mapping. In this study, 54 normal oral mucosa, 39 oral mild dysplasia, and 44 oral moderate dysplasia OCT images are processed for evaluating the diagnosis statistics. Based on SD mapping in an OCT image, it is found that the laterally average range percentages of 70% SD maximum level in the EP layer is a reasonably good threshold for differentiating moderate dysplasia from mild dysplasia oral lesion based on the OCT image analysis. The sensitivity and specificity in diagnosis statistics can reach 82 and 90%, respectively.

The reduction of average extinction cross section of a localized surface plasmon (LSP) resonance mode under the random orientation condition of Au nanoring (NRI) distribution is first numerically demonstrated. The reduction range depends on the geometry symmetry property of the electron oscillation axis in the LSP resonance mode. Then, by increasing the ring height, an optimized Au NRI geometry is designed to make the resonance wavelengths of its cross-ring dipole mode and axial dipole mode the same. In such an Au NRI, a few higher-order axial LSP modes are discovered. Also, under the condition of random orientation distribution, the ranges of extinction, scattering, and absorption cross section reductions from the corresponding maximum levels of optimized excitations are significantly decreased, when compared with the counterparts of the Au NRIs of a smaller ring height.

The significantly less stringent operation of a two-reference swept-source optical coherence tomography (OCT) system for suppressing the mirror image is demonstrated based on the spatially localized image processing method. With this method, the phase difference between the two reference signals is not limited to 90 degrees. Based on the current experimental operation, the mirror image can be effectively suppressed as long as the phase difference is larger than 20 degrees. In other words, the adjustment of the beam splitter orientation for controlling the phase difference becomes much more flexible. Also, based on a phantom experiment, the combination the spatially localized mirror image suppression method with the two-reference OCT operation leads to the implementation of full-range optical Doppler tomography.

An improved image processing procedure for suppressing the phase noise due to a motion artifact acquired during optical coherence tomography scanning and effectively illustrating the blood vessel distribution in a living tissue is demonstrated. This new processing procedure and the widely used procedure for micro-angiography application are based on the selection of high-frequency components in the spatial-frequency spectrum of B-mode scanning (x-space), which are contributed from the image portions of moving objects. However, by switching the processing order between the x-space and k-space, the new processing procedure shows the superior function of effectively suppressing the phase noise due to a motion artifact. After the blood vessel positions are precisely acquired based on the new processing procedure, the projected blood flow speed can be more accurately calibrated based on a previously reported method. The demonstrated new procedure is useful for clinical micro-angiography application, in which a stepping motor of generating motion artifacts is usually used in the scanning probe.

A method, novel to our knowledge, for effective mirror image suppression in Fourier-domain optical coherence tomography based on a phase shift between neighboring A-mode scans is demonstrated. By realizing that the phase shifts of the real and mirror images are mutually reversed and assuming that the real image intensities of the two successive A-mode scans are the same, we can solve a set of two coupled equations to obtain the real image signals. The images based on the scanning of a high-resolution spectral-domain optical coherence tomography system are processed to show effective mirror image suppression results. Compared with a similar method of broad application, our approach has the advantages of shorter process time and higher flexibility in selecting the concerned image portions for processing.

Time-resolved optical coherence tomography (OCT) scanning images of wild-type and mutant fruit flies (Drosophila melanogaster), illustrating the heartbeat patterns for evaluating their cardiac functions, are demonstrated. Based on the heartbeat patterns, the beat rate and the relative phase between the first two heart segments can be evaluated. The OCT scanning results of mutant flies with impaired proteasome function in cardiac muscles show irregular heartbeat patterns and systematically decreased average beat rates, when compared with the regular patterns of ∼4.97 beats/s in average beat rate of the wild-type. In both wild-type and proteasome mutant flies, the beatings at different locations in the same heart segment are essentially synchronized. However, between different heart segments, although the beating in the second segment shows a lag in phase behind that of the first segment in a wild-type, in a proteasome mutant, the beating in the second segment becomes significantly leading that of the first segment. Besides the comparison between the wild-type and proteasomal mutant flies, the influences of using different methods for immobilizing flies during OCT scanning on the heart functions are demonstrated. (© 2011 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim)

Au nanoring solutions of ∼1300 nm in localized surface plasmon resonance wavelength are fabricated and characterized. Their functions of image contrast enhancement in optical coherence tomography (OCT) and photothermal effect are demonstrated. Also, they are delivered into mouse liver for tracking their diffusion in the sample through continuous OCT scanning.

Image contrast enhancement of optical coherence tomography is demonstrated by diffusing Au nanorods into pig adipose for generating localized surface plasmon (LSP) resonance, which is confirmed by comparing with the case of no LSP excitation.

The dynamic behaviors of heart beating of drosophilae, including abnormal drosophilae of mutant genes and high-temperature culture, and normal drosophilae with different fixing techniques for observation, are monitored with a swept-source optical coherence tomography system.

Au nanorings (NRIs), which have the localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) wavelength around 1058 nm, either with or without linked antibodies, are applied to SAS oral cancer cells for cell inactivation through the LSPR-induced photothermal effect when they are illuminated by a laser of 1065 nm in wavelength. Different incubation times of cells with Au NRIs are considered for observing the variations of cell uptake efficiency of Au NRI and the threshold laser intensity for cell inactivation. In each case of incubation time, the cell sample is washed for evaluating the total Au NRI number per cell adsorbed and internalized by the cells based on inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry measurement. Also, the Au NRIs remaining on cell membrane are etched with KI/I2 solution to evaluate the internalized Au NRI number per cell. The threshold laser intensities for cell inactivation before washout, after washout, and after KI/I2 etching are calibrated from the circular area sizes of inactivated cells around the illuminated laser spot center with various laser power levels. By using Au NRIs with antibodies, the internalized Au NRI number per cell increases monotonically with incubation time up to 24 h. However, the number of Au NRI remaining on cell membrane reaches a maximum at 12 h in incubation time. The cell uptake behavior of an Au NRI without antibodies is similar to that with antibodies except that the uptake NRI number is significantly smaller and the incubation time for the maximum NRI number remaining on cell membrane is delayed to 20 h. By comparing the threshold laser intensities before and after KI/I2 etching, it is found that the Au NRIs remaining on cell membrane cause more effective cancer cell inactivation, when compared with the internalized Au NRIs.

The conventional optical coherence tomography (OCT) images based on enhanced scattering and the photothermal (PT) images based on enhanced absorption of the localized surface plasmon (LSP) resonance of Au nanorings (NRIs) in a bio-tissue sample are demonstrated with the scans of an OCT system (1310-nm system), in which the spectral range covers the LSP resonance peak wavelength, and another OCT system (1060-nm system), in which the spectral range is away from the LSP resonance peak wavelength. A PT image is formed by evaluating the modulation frequency (400 Hz) response of an excitation laser with its wavelength (1308 nm) close to the LSP resonance peak at 1305 nm of the Au NRI solution. With the scan of the 1310-nm OCT system, the Au NRI distribution in the bio-tissue sample can be observed in both conventional OCT and PT images. However, with the scan of the 1060-nm OCT system, the Au NRI distribution can be clearly observed only in the PT image. The diffusion process of Au NRIs in the bio-tissue sample can be traced with the scan of either OCT system. Based on phantom experiments, it is shown that the PT image can help in resolving the ambiguity of a conventional OCT image between the enhanced scattering of Au NRIs and the strong scattering of a tissue structure in the 1310-nm OCT scanning. Also, under the condition of weak intrinsic sample scattering, particularly in the scan of the 1060-nm system, the PT signal can be lower than a saturating level, which is determined by the excitation power. By increasing OCT system signal-to-noise ratio or M-mode scan time, the PT signal level can be enhanced.

The theory and experimental results of a computation time-saving mirror image suppression method in Fourier-domain optical coherence tomography, which utilizes the property of reversed system phase shift between the real and mirror images, for differentiating one from the other are demonstrated. By solving a set of two equations based on a reasonable approximation, the real image signal can be obtained. The theoretical backgrounds and the improved real image quality of the average and iteration procedures in this method are particularly illustrated. Also, the mirror image suppression ratios under various process conditions, including different process iteration numbers and different system phase shifts between two neighboring A-mode scans, are evaluated. Meanwhile, the mirror image suppression results based on our method are compared with those obtained from the widely used BM-scan technique. It is found that when a process procedure of two iterations is used, the mirror image suppression quality based on our method can be higher than that obtained from the BM-scan technique. The computation time of our method is significantly shorter than that of the BM-scan technique.

This study proposes a new approach to improve the phase stability for swept-source optical coherence tomography (SS-OCT) with single-channel acquisition. This approach can improve the phase instability due to the A-scan trigger jitter from the swept source, or the asynchronization between the A-scan trigger and high-speed digitizer, which enables the visualization of vascular structures by SS-OCT. Aside from reducing the phase noise of the OCT system, only one channel is required for the A-scan trigger, data storage, and wavelength calibration by implementing the proposed approach. Finally, human skin was scanned in vivo to demonstrate the vascular images.

The characterization results of the localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) of Au nanorings (NRs) with optical coherence tomography (OCT) are first demonstrated. Then, the diffusion behaviors of Au NRs in mouse liver samples tracked with OCT are shown. For such research, aqueous solutions of Au NRs with two different localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) wavelengths are prepared and characterized. Their LSPR-induced extinction cross sections at 1310 nm are estimated with OCT scanning of solution droplets on coverslip to show reasonably consistent results with the data at individual LSPR wavelengths and at 1310 nm obtained from transmission measurements of Au NR solutions and numerical simulations. The resonant and non-resonant Au NRs are delivered into mouse liver samples for tracking Au NR diffusion in the samples through continuous OCT scanning for one hour. With resonant Au NRs, the average A-mode scan profiles of OCT scanning at different delay times clearly demonstrate the extension of strong backscattering depth with time. The calculation of speckle variance among successive OCT scanning images, which is related to the local transport speed of Au NRs, leads to the illustrations of downward propagation and spreading of major Au NR motion spot with time.

Preparation of a high-concentration Au nanoring (NR) water solution and its applications to the enhancement of image contrast in optical coherence tomography (OCT) and the generation of the photothermal effect in a bio-sample through localized surface plasmon (LSP) resonance are demonstrated. Au NRs are first fabricated on a sapphire substrate with colloidal lithography and secondary sputtering of Au, and then transferred into a water solution through a liftoff process. By controlling the NR geometry, the LSP dipole resonance wavelength in tissue can cover a spectral range of 1300 nm for OCT scanning of deep tissue penetration. The extinction cross sections of the fabricated Au NRs in water are estimated to give levels of 10(-10)-10(-9) cm(2) near their LSP resonance wavelengths. The fabricated Au NRs are then delivered into pig adipose samples for OCT scanning. It is observed that, when resonant Au NRs are delivered into such a sample, LSP resonance-induced Au NR absorption results in a photothermal effect, making the opaque pig adipose cells transparent. Also, the delivered Au NRs in the intercellular substance enhance the image contrast of OCT scanning through LSP resonance-enhanced scattering. By continuously OCT scanning a sample, both photothermal and image contrast enhancement effects are observed. However, by continually scanning a sample with a low scan frequency, only the image contrast enhancement effect is observed.