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Aims: To model and optimize complementary foods based on their mixture ingredients viz. African breadfruit, soybean and maize, and their depending quality characteristics namely, energy, carbohydrate, fat, ash, protein, flavor, taste, general acceptability and paste viscosity, and determine the amino acid qualities of the optimized formula. Study Design: Experimental research (controlled experiment). Place and Duration of Study: The Department of Food Science and Technology, Michael Okpara University of Agriculture, Umudike between 2011 and 2015. Methodology: The D-optimal three factor mixture design fitted into the second order canonical model was adopted, and the factor ranges were set at 64-80 % (African breadfruit), 19-35 % (soybean) and 1-9 % (maize) which yielded twenty blends (including replications) based on the mixture design combination. Each mixture component was expressed as a proportion of the mixture such that the sum was equal to 100 %. Results: The results of the analyses were: 379.51-411 kcal/100 g (energy), 53.59-63.62 % (carbohydrate), 8-6 % (fat), 3.03-4.28 % (ash), 10.31-14.64 % (protein), 6-like slightly to 8-like very much (flavor, taste and general acceptability) and 5770-5800mPa.s (paste viscosity). Protein and energy were exceptionally high with all the values of protein exceeding the minimum standard recommended for complementary foods. The models for energy, fat, taste and paste viscosity were excellent for prediction due to the quality of their PRESS and predicted r-squared hence their selection for the numerical optimization which resulted in the prediction of 69:24:7 (African breadfruit: soybean: maize) as the optimized formula. Amino acid evaluation of this optimized formula showed that the values compared favourably with standards (WHO/FAO/UNU reference pattern and egg reference protein). Conclusion: The selection of 69:24:7 as the optimized formula indicates that complementary food can be produced with the African breadfruit as a base at 69% inclusion, while its amino acid profile suggests that its protein could be nutritionally adequate.

There are increasing research efforts on the possibilities of the utilization of natural sources of bioactive compounds for the dietary management of certain degenerative diseases due to their deleterious health effects associated with the the use of synthetic chemicals. Therefore, this study evaluated the yield of total phenol from bambaranut, cowpea, red bean and pigeon pea. A set of single factor experiments, namely solvent types (acetone, ethanol and methanol), solvent concentration (20 – 100 %, v/v), extraction time (30 – 50 min) and extraction temperature (40 – 60 °C), were evaluated for the optimization of total phenol recovery. The results show that extraction variables significantly (p < 0.05) affected the total phenol yield. Ethanol at 60% concentration (v/v) incubated at 50 °C for 40 min gave the highest total phenol (217.11 mg/100 g) yield in bambaranut. In cowpea, ethanol at 90% concentration (v/v) incubated at 50 °C for 50 min gave the highest total phenol (192.61 mg/100 g). Methanol at 100% concentration incubated at 50 °C for 40 min gave the highest total phenol (212.00 mg/100 g) in the red bean while methanol at 100 % concentration (v/v) incubated at 50 °C for 40 min gave the highest total phenol (196.33 mg/100 g) in pigeon pea.

This study assessed the effects of fermentation time (2, 3 and 4 days) and germination time (2, 3 and 4 days) on total phenolics, tannin, anthocyanin, carotenoids and flavonoids contents of lesser legumes: cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L.), bambaranut (Vigna subterranean L.), red bean (Phaseolus vulgaris), pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan), African breadfruit (Treculia africana) seeds, African yam bean (Sphenostylis stenocarpa) seed, African oil bean (Pentaclethra mycrophylla Benth.) seed and groundnut (Arachis hypogea L.). The antioxidant and reducing powers of a three day germinated samples were also evaluated. The result revealed that fermentation reduced the total phenolics, tannin, anthocyanin, carotenoid and flavonoid contents of the samples with increasing fermentation time; however, red bean showed minimal increase with increasing fermentation time. There was significant (p

The traditional practice of using sharp sand grains as abrasives to de-slime African breadfruit (Treculia africana) seeds leaves their kernels with traces of these contaminants. Some physical dimensions of the seed, its kernel and hull were determined using two major varieties: var. africana and var. inversa. The fruit head of var. africana was significantly (P ≤ 0.05) heavier and bulkier but contained less number of edible seeds in the pulp than var. inversa. It showed a fractional porosity of 0.309 compared to significantly (P ≤ 0.05) higher porosity (0.697) shown in var. inversa. The seed and kernel of var. africana were significantly (P ≤ 0.05) shorter, thicker and wider by 6.54 and 9.42; 2.00 and 2.04; and 10.38 and 16.55%, respectively, than var. inversa. Seed, kernel and hull densities of var. africana were 1.076, 0.984 and 0.072 (g/cm3) while those of var. inversa were 0.883, 0.834 and 0.032 (g/cm3), respectively. The hull contributed 0.19–8.12% to the difference between the seed and kernel shape in var. africana and 2.09–12.26% in var. inversa. The aspect ratio of var. africana seed (59–60) showed that it will behave more closely like a sphere on oscillating surface than var. inversa (44–59). PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS Three varieties of African breadfruit with characteristic physical dimensions relevant for seed type selection and kernel cleaning are known. Unfortunately, they are sold as mixed varieties, with the first two the most widely cultivated and consumed. Apart from contaminants that incidentally mix with the seeds during their extraction in the field, the deliberate use of sharp sand as abrasives to enhance de-sliming leaves the seeds with such contaminants. It is expected that the information obtained from this research might be useful in designing and fabricating mechanical cleaners for the kernel and other crops with similar physical dimensions with the attendant benefits of reducing the dangers and risks of exposing the teeth of the cleaners to stone damage. Seed type selection will be of interest to both breeders and consumers by eliminating nonuniformity in doneness during cooking due to varietal differences in mixed batches.

Five levels of African breadfruit (Treculia africana), corn and soybean mixtures (fc) in ratios of 40:5:55, 55:5:40, 70:5:25, 85:5:10 and 100:0:0, respectively, were hydrated to 15, 18, 21, 24 and 27% (fm) and extruded at 100, 120, 140, 160 and 180 rpm (ss) in a Brabender single-screw extruder. The objective was to study effects of process variable conditions on mineral and chemical composition of the mixtures. Models developed by response surface analysis were high (R2 = 0.7646–0.9732) for Na, Ca, Mg, protein, fat, fiber and carbohydrate, and showed no significant (P > 0.05) lack of fit. All process variables had significant (P ≤ 0.05) linear effects on Mg, protein and carbohydrate, quadratic effects on fat, energy and Mg and cross-product effects on Ca, Mg, protein and carbohydrate, when fc interacted with either fm or ss. Optimum process variable conditions that gave the best mineral and chemical composition were obtained at 40:5:55(fc), 18% (fm) and 140 rpm (ss). PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS The potentials of African breadfruit as a nutrient resource and its position in the food cycle of the people in the subtropical African countries makes its blending with other local ingredients one important way of expanding the scope of its utilization. African breadfruit seeds provide a delicacy and a specialized meal when consumed alone or with shelled milk-corn. The versatility and acceptance of extrusion as a processing technology and its benefits over conventional methods and worldwide adaptability to a variety of crops, makes its application in this research appropriate. Optimization of process variable conditions affecting mineral and chemical composition of extruded and unextruded mixtures of African breadfruit, corn and soybean, using response surface analysis, was the thrust of the study. It is expected to produce an optimum process combination that could give the best mineral and chemical composition for a possible scale-up operation in African breadfruit seed processing enterprises.

Flours processed from eight cassava roots were selected from recently developed Cassava Mosaic Disease resistant varieties (92b/00061, 95/0289, 92/0057, 96/1632, 98/0505, 97/2205, TME419 and 92/0326). They were evaluated for proximate composition, hydrogen cyanide, vitamin A and functional properties. They were also processed into noodles adapting a locally fabricated cold extruder as a single-screw extruder. The extruded cassava noodles were cooked and subjected to sensory analysis. Principal component and cluster analyses of the parameters were adopted using the correlation matrix with the objective of grouping the varieties into functional groups. The proximate composition showed that mean protein value ranged from 1.93% (98/0505) to 2.60% (96/1632) and fat ranged from 0.46% (92/0326 and 95/0289) to 0.95% (96/1632). The principal component analysis showed that PC1, PC2 and PC3 were key components contributing 90.90% of the variables. Vitamin A determined as carotenoid ranged from 1.94 (92/0057) to 2.40 µg/g (TME419) while hydrogen cyanide concentration ranged from 8.20 (92/0057) to 11.14 mg/kg (96/1632). Noodles made from 95/0289 CMD variety had the least acceptable sensory properties while those made from 98/0505 were most generally acceptable. No significant (P ≥ 0.05) differences were noticed in taste, colour and general acceptability of all the samples. The sensory evaluation of noodles made from the eight cassava varieties (colour, taste, flavour, texture and general acceptability) produced two principal components which accounted for 85.80% while the functional properties explained 81.30% of the variations. The key sensory properties with significant eigenvalues based on their loadings (≥0.5) were colour, taste, texture and general acceptability. Compared to raw samples, dried noodles were about 1.98 times, while cooked noodles were up to three times greater in diameter, respectively. The result showed that cassava flour could serve as a good substitute to wheat flour in noodle production and utilisation.

Five-level combinations of African breadfruit, corn and soybean, in the ratios 40:5:55; 55:5:40; 70:5:25; 85:5:10 and 100:0:0%, respectively, were hydrated to 15, 18, 21, 24 and 27% and extruded into snacks at screw speeds of 100, 120, 140, 160 and 180 rpm. Physical characteristics of snacks from blends containing 15 and 18% moisture ranged from thin-smooth to thin-fine-smooth pellets. Those containing 21 to 27% moisture were either thin-smooth or thick-smooth, fine-smooth or rough strands. Feed moisture and feed composition were the most significant process variables influencing physical and sensory characteristics. The optimum process variable combination that had maximum influence on physical and sensory characteristics of snacks was the 70:5:25 feed ratio with 21% moisture and extruded at 140 rpm. This resulted in an overall acceptability score of 8.20 on a 9-point hedonic scale. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS African breadfruit is widely grown in the high rainforest parts of Nigeria and other African countries, where the seeds are traditionally consumed as porridge meal when cooked with ingredients or as snacks when roasted. There is therefore a need to adopt more efficient extrusion technologies to rapidly and efficiently transform African breadfruit and its blends with corn and soybean into acceptable snacks. Optimizing process variable conditions using response surface analysis to evaluate product physical characteristics and acceptability was the thrust of this study. It is expected to give direction toward a more scientific approach to scaling up operations in African breadfruit seed processing and utilization.

Mixtures of African breadfruit (Treculia africana Decne), corn, and defatted soybean were extruded in a single-screw Brabender laboratory extruder at process variables derived from a second-order central composite design. The variables consisted of feed composition (0–100% breadfruit, 0–55% soybean, and 0 or 5% corn); fed moisture (15–27%), and screw speed (100–180 rpm). Effects of these variables on residence time distribution were investigated using Congo red as tracer. The extrudate spent longer time in the extruder as feed moisture or screw speed was decreased from 27% to 15% or 180 to 100 rpm, respectively, thereby increasing the residence time distribution characteristics. At 70% feed composition and screw speed of 140 rpm, mean residence time (\(\overline t \)) increased from 40 to 50 s, whereas extrudate total collection time (tc) increased from 65 to 70 s. At screw speed of 100–180 rpm, mean residence time (\(\overline t \)) decreased from 55 to 35 s, whereas extrudate total collection time (tc) decreased from 75 to 65 s. At 100% African breadfruit composition, these time values decreased to 35 and 70 s, respectively, at the same screw speed, indicating the significant influence of feed composition and soybean addition to the mixture on residence time distribution. Residence time distribution curves indicated an early breakthrough time of 20 s at maximum screw speed (180 rpm), minimum tail of 65 s, and a plug flow pattern of the extrudates.

BACKGROUND: African breadfruit, from which diverse food forms are produced, is popular in most West African tropical regions. The present study is part of a larger research project aimed at developing appealing, processed, nutritious products from blends of breadfruit, corn and defatted soybean by utilising extrusion cooking using response surface analysis. The study describes the ability or otherwise of raw and extruded African breadfruit-based diets, similar to weaning diets simulated with rats, to support growth of children and infants. RESULTS: Maximum protein efficiency and net protein ratios of 2.22 and 3.69, respectively, were obtained with rats fed diets made from 40 g 100 g−1 African breadfruit + 5 g 100 g−1 corn + 55 g 100 g−1 soybean extrudates at 18 mL 100 mL−1 feed moisture and 140 rpm screw speed. It compared favourably with a casein standard and was 54–69% and 42–55% higher than those fed raw diets. CONCLUSION: Extrusion cooking significantly improved the nutritional quality of African breadfruit–corn–defatted soybean as reflected in their protein efficiency and net protein values. The superiority in protein quality of diet 1 (containing 40 g 100 g−1 breadfruit, 5 g 100 g−1 corn and 55 g 100 g−1 defatted soybean) over the other experimental diets has serious nutritional implication in dietary diversification to address protein-energy malnutrition prevalent in Nigeria and other West African countries especially where African breadfruit is known to be highly cultivated as a food resource. Copyright © 2007 Society of Chemical Industry

Full fat African breadfruit, corn and defatted soy blends with moisture content range of 6.20-7.50% (wet basis) were extruded in a single-screw Brabender laboratory extruder (DCE 330, Brabender Instruments Inc., South Hackensack, NJ) at varying independent process variables of feed composition (fc), feed moisture (fm) and screw speed. A central composite design was employed to study the effects of these variables and extrusion cooking on several quality characteristics of the center point blend, and energy input as torque and specific mechanical energy (SME). SME is relevant in that the more the energy applied, the greater the degradation of starch while torque is directly correlated with power usage. Extrusion cooking significantly (P ≤ 0.05) affected bulk density, water absorption, water solubility and nitrogen solubility indices. Torque and SME ranged from 4.00 to 8.50 N.m and 216 to 376 kJ/kg, respectively. Regression analysis of data generated of experimental data showed that fc had significant (P ≤ 0.05) quadratic effect on both energy measurements. Screw speed and fm showed significant (P ≤ 0.05) linear effects on SME while screw speed alone showed significant (P ≤ 0.05) linear effect on torque. At 160-rpm screw speed and 85% fc, the torque value was maximum (8.50 N-m). Maximum SME value of 376.72 kJ/kg was obtained at 85% fc, 24% fm and 120-rpm screw speed. Economically, therefore, extruded products made from blends of breadfruit, corn and soy flours will require lower extruder power usage given the fat and fm levels. Findings of this research might be useful to processors for better process control and optimal energy utilization when extruding these or related blends in a single-screw extruder.

This study used Response Surface Methodology was used to roast, identify and characterize the optimum values of functional properties of African breadfruit (Treculia africana) seed flour processed for industrial applications. The central Composition Rotable Design of treatment variables at 3 process variables (Roasting temperature RT, Roasting Time RM, and feed quantity FQ) and 5 process levels (-1.682, -1, 0, 1, 1.682) was used to optimize bulk density water and oil absorption capacities, gelation and emulsion capacity of the produced flour. Functional properties of the flour increased above the value of control and relative to process treatment. The effect of roasting temperature was significant (p < 0.05) for bulk density, gelation and emulsion capacity. Roasting time and feed quantity significantly (p˂0.05) influenced water absorption and emulsion capacities of the flour. Optimum values were bulk density 0/79 g/cm3, water absorption capacity 4.00ml/g, oil absorption capacities 2.90m/g, gelation 8.92 w/v. The unified optimum values of the functional properties occurred at process treatment combination of 126.360C, 45.85min and 505.09g, respectively for temperature, time and quantity. Processing African breadfruit seeds into flour at the optimal point will enhance its usefulness in industrial applications were functional properties of flour are of processing important.