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We surveyed the urial Ovis vignei and Siberian ibex Capra sibirica in the Hindu Kush mountain range of Wakhan National Park in north-eastern Afghanistan to determine their population status and identify potential drivers of population change. We conducted two double-observer ground surveys, in April–May 2015 and 2018, in 10 areas (total = 288 km2). Urial herds were mostly composed of both sexes (78% of observed herds), the mean adult sex ratio (females:males) was 100:70, and the mean female:juvenile ratio was 100:53. In 2018 we calculated a urial density of 35/100 km2, compared to 72/100 km2 in 2015. Ibex herds were mostly (79%) composed of both sexes, the mean adult sex ratio (females:males) was 100:103, and the mean female:juvenile ratio was 100:58. Ibex density estimates were similar in 2015 and 2018 (c. 250/100 km2). We discuss the usefulness of the double-observer methods for ungulate surveys, highlight the value of viewshed calculations and discuss the possible causes of urial population decline. To ensure the conservation of these ungulate populations, we recommend continued regular monitoring, measures to address poaching and research to clarify the taxonomical status of urials in Wakhan.

Conservation planning of montane areas requires knowledge of vegetation composition and distribution patterns that is often lacking in rugged terrain. We mapped the “Afromontane” vegetation of Bwindi Impenetrable Forest, Uganda, represented as tree species assemblages. Given the wide variation in elevation, topography and human impacts across Bwindi, we hypothesized that these key factors, either acting in isolation or in combination, would influence the tree species distribution patterns. To test this, detailed tree surveys were carried out using stratified random sampling. These data were evaluated against bioclimatic variables and elevation as potential predictive attributes using multivariate statistical techniques. Cluster analysis identified six tree species assemblages that were confirmed by MRPP, Mantel’s test, and Indicator Species Analysis to possess distinct compositions. Ordination analysis showed that elevation was the main factor explaining variation in tree species between forest sites but other factors including longitude, human disturbance, ridge-top, temperature, and precipitation were also significant. Random Forests modeling predicted and spatially mapped the tree species assemblages with elevation showing the highest predictive power. These results confirm our hypothesis that the combined effects of elevation, topography, climate, and human disturbance showed consistent and non-random relationships to tree species composition and distribution but the individual contributions could not be analytically separated. Nevertheless, we show that it is possible to predict the spatial pattern of species-rich but disturbed tree communities based on a limited sample across a complex landscape. Such methods and results offer accurate mapping of composition that will be of great value to managers and conservationists.

Human conflict with large carnivores continues to be a great conservation challenge, and conflict with snow leopards (Panthera uncia) has been studied to understand causes and propose mitigation schemes. While the nature of snow leopard-human conflict is similar in most cases, reported studies have been case- and area-specific with mitigation strategies not necessarily based on a synthesis of relevant literature. We reviewed snow leopard literature published from 1970-2020 to identify the main drivers of human-snow leopard conflict (HSLC) and describe conservation and conflict mitigation strategies commonly employed. Based on 47 relevant peer-reviewed articles, review papers, book chapters, project reports, and other grey literature, we identified four major conflict domains: livestock management-related, socio-economic/human-related, ecological, and policy-related. Most articles suggested more than one conflict mitigation scheme. Three conflict mitigation domains – preventive, supportive, and compensatory – were widely reflected in the snow leopard-human conflict literature. The most commonly reported mitigation schemes included: 1) building or predator-proofing corrals; 2) training shepherds and improving livestock guarding; 3) livestock insurance schemes; 4) compensation for livestock predation; 5) capacity building, education, and awareness programs; and 6) improved breeding and use of guard dogs. Future management efforts need to tailor their approach depending on cultural, economic, and ecological circumstances.

Sáenz-Bolaños C, Fuller TK, Sievert L, Carrillo E. 2022. Human-wildlife conflict in indigenous communities of the Nairi Awari Indigenous Territory of East Central Costa Rica. Biodiversitas 23: 2238-2244. Human-wildlife conflict is essential for conservation because it is necessary to maintain the balance of requirements needed by humans and wildlife. Indigenous territories are not exempt from interactions with wildlife, and in this study, we focus on one indigenous territory of the Cabécar Indigenous Group of Costa Rica called Nairi Awari. We wanted to know which are the most common wildlife species, which interactions with these species the Nairi Awari consider negative, and what are the possible solutions to these interactions. To do this, we administered 24 semi-structured questionnaires to indigenous people from March-August 2019. The results showed 16 species as “problematic animals”, the jaguar (Panthera onca) being the most common, followed by hawks. Of the six problem categories identified, predation on poultry was the most cited category, but it raised fewer negative feelings among respondents than some other problems. Possible solutions to pig or cow predation, problems which most maddened respondents, included improved management (48%), scaring animals (12%), and killing big cats (16%). It is important to understand these perceptions in order to address future management to benefit conservation and human welfare. In particular, there is potential to work in the long term to improve the management of domestic animals.

SummaryHumans are contributing to large carnivore declines around the globe, and conservation interventions should focus on increasing local stakeholder tolerance of carnivores and be informed by both biological and social considerations. In the Okavango Delta (Botswana), we tested new conservation strategies alongside a pre-existing government compensation programme. The new strategies included the construction of predator-proof livestock enclosures, the establishment of an early warning system linked to GPS satellite lion collars, depredation event investigations and educational programmes. We conducted pre- and post-assessments of villagers’ livestock management practices, attitudes towards carnivores and conservation, perceptions of human–carnivore coexistence and attitudes towards established conservation programmes. Livestock management levels were low and 50% of farmers lost livestock to carnivores, while 5–10% of owned stock was lost. Respondents had strong negative attitudes towards lions, which kill most depredated livestock. Following new management interventions, tolerance of carnivores significantly increased, although tolerance of lions near villages did not. The number of respondents who believed that coexistence with carnivores was possible significantly increased. Respondents had negative attitudes towards the government-run compensation programme, citing low and late payments, but were supportive of the new management interventions. These efforts show that targeted, intensive management can increase stakeholder tolerance of carnivores.

This study benefitted from funding by the BiodivERsA initiative of the European Community (No. 2015-138) and more specifically by the German Bundesministerium für Bildung und Forschung (Project No. 01LC1617A) to UR. Additional funding and equipment was provided by Operation Wallacea and the Institute of Zoology, Hannover. Understanding the mechanisms by which similar species coexist in sympatry is a major driver of ecological research. Niche partitioning and ecological plasticity can facilitate spatial and habitat use overlap between generalist and specialist species. Mouse lemurs (Microcebus spp.) are a highly speciose group of small primates that are endemic to the forests of Madagascar. In northwestern Madagascar, the relatively widespread M. murinus occurs sympatrically with the microendemic M. ravelobensis. We investigated spatial distributions and densities of these two species across a mangrove–dry forest habitat gradient in Mariarano commune. We used capture-mark-recapture techniques and nocturnal line transect surveys along six transects during June and July 2017. Spatial capture-recapture and distance sampling models were used to estimate lemur densities across habitat types. The congeners displayed differential patterns of spatial distribution and densities. Microcebus murinus was found in similar densities across all habitat types, while M. ravelobensis was found at much higher densities in dry forests compared with mangroves. This suggests that the generalist M. murinus uses a wider array of habitats more evenly than the specialist M. ravelobensis. Our study provides empirical evidence of how cryptic lemur species differ in their habitat use and distribution across an environmental gradient and provides new insights into their ecology in an understudied habitat. Lemurs are one of the most threatened groups of mammals in the world, and understanding how these species are distributed across different forest types is crucial for planning and implementing conservation measures to protect lemur habitat. Postprint

This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved. With the accelerating pace of global change, it is imperative that we obtain rapid inventories of the status and distribution of wildlife for ecological inferences and conservation planning. To address this challenge, we launched the SNAPSHOT USA project, a collaborative survey of terrestrial wildlife populations using camera traps across the United States. For our first annual survey, we compiled data across all 50 states during a 14-week period (17 August - 24 November of 2019). We sampled wildlife at 1509 camera trap sites from 110 camera trap arrays covering 12 different ecoregions across four development zones. This effort resulted in 166,036 unique detections of 83 species of mammals and 17 species of birds. All images were processed through the Smithsonian's eMammal camera trap data repository and included an expert review phase to ensure taxonomic accuracy of data, resulting in each picture being reviewed at least twice. The results represent a timely and standardized camera trap survey of the USA. All of the 2019 survey data are made available herein. We are currently repeating surveys in fall 2020, opening up the opportunity to other institutions and cooperators to expand coverage of all the urban-wild gradients and ecophysiographic regions of the country. Future data will be available as the database is updated at eMammal.si.edu/snapshot-usa, as well as future data paper submissions. These data will be useful for local and macroecological research including the examination of community assembly, effects of environmental and anthropogenic landscape variables, effects of fragmentation and extinction debt dynamics, as well as species-specific population dynamics and conservation action plans. There are no copyright restrictions; please cite this paper when using the data for publication. Publisher PDF

Se seleccionó la licencia Creative Commons para este envío. El documento trae lo siguiente: © 2020 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Protected areas are intended to achieve the long-term conservation of nature, but not all such areas are equal in their effectiveness because of their varying regulation of human activities. In Costa Rica, we assessed mammal and bird species presence and relative abundance in three protected areas in the northern Talamanca Mountains. In this humid tropical forest area, we placed camera traps in an adjacent national park, forest reserve, and indigenous territories, each with a different mix of human activities. In 10,120 trap nights, we obtained 6181 independent photos of mostly mammals (34 species other than humans) and birds (34 species). Species with greater abundance or only occurrence in the national park were mammals and birds commonly hunted outside of the park, large carnivores rarely documented in other areas, and poachers. Species found more often outside of the park were medium-sized mammals, some birds, and domestic mammals. We conclude that even in the same ecological area, varying regulations related to type of protected area have significant effects on some mammal and bird species abundances and occurrences, and thus need to be considered when assessing the overall effectiveness of protection as a conservation strategy Universidad Nacional, Costa Rica University of Massachusetts, United States Instituto Internacional en Conservación y Manejo de Vida Silvestre

The reproductive season of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) has been hypothesized to be aseasonal south of about 14°–18°N latitude, where annual variation in day length is low. We tested this idea by using camera-trap data (1,336 photographed individuals identified by age and sex) collected during 2011–2017 in the dry tropical forest of Santa Rosa National Park, northwest Costa Rica, where wet and dry seasons are welldefined. We identified variation in monthly occurrence of spotted deer fawns, as well as the status of antler growth of male deer, specifically related to the very seasonal environment of the region. Year-round reproduction likely occurs, but the rainfall pattern in the area greatly influences the relative frequency of reproductive indicators, with most births occurring during the dry season, and a second peak occurring toward the latter part of the wet season. We speculate that food resources are the major influence on reproductive patterns, and that variation in types and timing of food resource availability likely account for the variation in reproductive patterns. La temporada reproductiva del venado de cola blanca (Odocoileus virginianus) se ha hipotetizado como algo estacional al sur de aproximadamente 14°–18° de latitud norte, donde la variación anual en el largo del día es baja. Pusimos a prueba esta hipótesis usando datos de captura de cámara (1.336 individuos fotografiados identificados por edad y sexo) recolectados durante 2011–2017 en el bosque tropical seco del Parque Nacional Santa Rosa, en el noroeste de Costa Rica, donde las estaciones húmedas y secas están bien definidas. Encontramos variación en la incidencia mensual de cervatos manchados, así como el estado del crecimiento de las astas de machos de venado, específicamente relacionados con variaciones estacionales en el medioambiente de la región. Es probable que se de la reproducción durante todo el año, pero el patrón de precipitación en el área influye en gran medida en la frecuencia relativa de los indicadores reproductivos: la mayoría de los nacimientos se dan durante la estación seca, con un segundo pico hacia la última parte de la estación lluviosa. Especulamos que los recursos alimenticios son la principal influencia en patrones reproductivos, y que la variación en los tipos y el tiempo de disponibilidad de recursos alimenticios probablemente explica la variación en patrones reproductivos. Universidad Nacional, Costa Rica University of Massachusetts, United States Instituto Internacional en Conservación y Manejo de Vida Silvestre

Rhinoceros poaching has been recognized the world over as a conservation crisis, the result of the high price of horn and demand in Asian markets. The commitment and participation of local people in conservation activities, however, are crucial for conservation success. Here we assess attitudes and perceptions towards rhino poaching and conservation in light of surveys in two local communities adjacent to the Hlane Royal National Park in eSwatini where perhaps 100 black (Diceros bicornis) and white (Ceratotherium simum) rhino occur. Our survey of 60 households addressed perceptions and attitudes towards rhino conservation and willingness to participate in rhino poaching and conservation activities. No efforts have been made to involve local people in conservation activities, and the people do not benefit from the park's activities. About 20% of respondents expressed their willingness to help rhino poachers provided they are paid for their services. Of the remaining 80%, some mentioned that they would not help poachers for fear of being apprehended. Still, some mentioned that they would not help poachers because of their concern about poaching and believe its prevention is important. Park authorities here and elsewhere could invest in building better people–park relationships, and provide opportunities for local communities to participate in conservation activities. Conservation policies to co-manage the resources could be used to deter poaching and to conserve wildlife involving local community members in monitoring and enforcement strategies.

Many terrestrial mammalian migrations are disappearing before they are documented. The Boma-Jonglei ecosystem in South Sudan, one of the world’s poorest and most conflicted countries, contains some of the largest, longest, and least studied ungulate migrations. A rapidly increasing human population, ongoing armed conflict, and looming oil development, however, threatens the migration of 800,000 white-eared kob (Kobus kob leucotis) and 160,000 tiang (Damaliscus lunatus tiang) in this system. To document these migrations and identify potential conflicts, we examined the movements of ungulates in the Boma-Jonglei ecosystem using data from 14 collared individuals (12 kob, 2 tiang). We identified two separate dry season ranges of kob; from each, kob initiated migration with the onset of the rainy season, and migrated to a shared rainy season range also shared by the tiang. The maximum straight-line distance between telemetry locations of kob (399 km) and tiang (298 km) on their dry and rainy season ranges indicated these migrations were among the longest in Africa. The kob range was 68,805 km2, 29% of which was within national parks and 72% within leased oil concessions (54–83% of parks overlap with potential oil concessions). The range of the tiang (35,992 km2) occurred almost entirely (> 99%) within land leased to oil companies. Because disruption or elimination of these migrations will inevitably lead to significant population reductions, maintenance of the migration routes we identified through additional protection measures are essential to conserve one of the largest ungulate aggregations in the world.

Bush dogs (Speothos venaticus) are a small, wide-ranging neotropical pack-hunting canid whose ecology is relatively poorly known. Here, we document new, repeated observations of bush dog groups in east-central (Barbilla National Park) and south-eastern (La Amistad International Park) Costa Rica that suggest either that their recent or historic range has been underestimated, or that their potential range in Central America may have recently expanded and could now include not only borderlands with Panama but perhaps a substantial portion of the Talamanca Mountains up to 120 km to the northnorthwest and at elevations up to 2,119 m. In light of their inherently low density, documenting the current and future distribution of bush dogs in Central America will be challenging Los perros de monte (Speothos venaticus) son un pequeño cánido neotropical cazador en manada cuya ecología es relativamente poco conocida. Aquí, documentamos observaciones nuevas y repetidas de grupos de perros de monte en el centro-este (Parque Nacional Barbilla) y el sureste (Parque Internacional La Amistad) de Costa Rica que sugieren que su área de distribución reciente o histórica ha sido subestimada, o que su potencial El rango de distribución en América Central puede haberse expandido recientemente y ahora podría incluir no solo las tierras fronterizas con Panamá, sino quizás una parte sustancial de las montañas de Talamanca hasta 120 km al noroeste y en elevaciones de hasta 2.119 m. A la luz de su densidad inherentemente baja, documentar la distribución actual y futura de los perros de monte en Centroamérica será un desafío. Universidad Nacional, Costa Rica Universidad de Massachusetts, Estados Unidos Point Loma Nazarene University, Estados Unidos Centro de Educación e Investigación del Quetzal, Costa Rica Sistema Nacional de Aéreas de Conservación, Costa Rica Instituto Internacional en Conservación y Manejo de Vida Silvestre

Temporal and spatial scarcity of water in semi-arid and seasonal ecosystems often leads to changes in movements and behaviour of large vertebrates, and in the neotropics this dynamic is poorly understood due to logistical and methodological limitations. Here we used camera trapping to elucidate variation in patterns of seasonal use of waterholes and pathways by 10 large-mammal and four large-bird species in the dry forest of north-western Costa Rica. From 2011 to 2015, we deployed trail cameras at 50 locations, including waterholes and three types of pathway (roads, human trails and animal paths). We used Generalized Linear Models to evaluate the effect of location and seasonality on the rates at which independent photographs were taken. We found interacting effects of location and seasonality for the capuchin monkey (Cebus capucinus), the tiger heron (Trigrisoma mexicanum), the white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) and the tapir (Tapirus bairdii) suggesting that these species were the most influenced by waterholes during the dry season. Comparison of waterhole sites and specific types of pathways (roads, animal paths and human trails) showed that location influenced photo-capture rates of almost all species, suggesting a useful insight to avoid and account for bias in camera trap studies. Furthering our ecological understanding of seasonal water regimes and large vertebrates’ behaviours allow for better understanding of the consequences of climate change on them. Universidad Nacional, Costa Rica Universidad de Massachusetts, Estados Unidos Osa Conservation, Costa Rica Universidad Federal de Minas Gerais, Brasil Instituto Internacional en Conservación y Manejo de Vida Silvestre

International audience; Coral reef fisheries provide important ecosystem services to coastal communities, yet in the Pacific Islands, many of these contemporary fisheries are threatened by overexploitation. Historically, Pacific Island societies successfully utilized community-based management and spatial temporal closures to regulate the harvest of marine resources. In recognition of their past success these actions are currently being reemployed throughout the region. However, in many communities, innovative approaches may be needed to revitalize such practices and adapt traditional management to contemporary societal needs and expectations. This study presents the case of Anaa Atoll, a remote Pacific Island in the Tuamotu Archipelago of French Polynesia, and the community’s efforts to conserve a culturally important but overexploited bonefish (Albula glossodonta) fishery. Ultimately, fisheries research, education, and the creation of Aire Marine Educative (a marine area that is managed by a local primary school) were successful in building social cohesion and supporting the renaissance of rahui (a traditional form of restricting access to resources and or territories) to manage this fishery. On March 1st, 2019, the community of Anaa reinitiated this tradition for the first time in centuries. Based on these experiences, and an ensuing increase in the Spawning Potential Ratio of the bonefish stock, it is proposed that nationally recognized local management systems that incorporate fisheries research, youth education, and the cultural practices of communities should be supported in the marine policies of the Pacific Islands and beyond.

The Southern Gobi of Mongolia is an iconic ungulate stronghold that supports the world's largest populations of Asiatic wild ass (or khulan – Equus hemionus) and goitered gazelle (Gazella subgutturosa). A growing human population, intensifying exploitation of natural resources, and the development of infrastructure in the region place increasing pressure on these species and their habitats. During 2012–2015, we studied factors influencing the distribution of these two ungulate species in the Southern Gobi to better inform management. We built Generalized Linear Mixed Models (GLMMs) to predict the location of suitable habitat for the two species using environmental and human-associated factors. These models were validated using independent telemetry data for each species. The GLMMs suggest that the probability of ungulate presence decreased with increasing human influence and increased in areas with intermediate values of elevation and Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (except for goitered gazelle). Notably, human-associated factors were more important than environmental variables in explaining the distribution of the two species. Habitat models predicted between 45 and 55% of the study area to be suitable for khulan and between 50 and 55% suitable for goitered gazelles during 2012–2015. Models for both species had good predictive power, as nearly 90% of khulan and 100% of goitered gazelle telemetry locations from separate data sets were found within the predicted preferred areas. Our approach quantifies the key drivers of their distribution and our findings are useful for policy makers, managers, and industry to plan mitigation measures to reduce the impacts of development.

Mongolia's Gobi Desert ecosystem, a stronghold for populations of the Asiatic wild ass (khulan) Equus hemionus and the goitered gazelle Gazella subgutturosa, faces conservation challenges as a result of rapid economic development, including mining-related infrastructure projects. There is a paucity of reliable data on population abundance for these ungulates in the region, which makes it difficult to assess how they are responding to increasing anthropogenic pressure. Our aim was to obtain abundance estimates for khulan and goitered gazelles to inform their management and form the basis of a long-term monitoring programme. Each year during 2012–2015 we surveyed a total of 64 line transects spaced 20 km apart, with a total of 3,464 km of survey effort across 78,717 km2. Distance sampling analysis provided annual estimates of density and abundance, which were cross-referenced with the results of an aerial survey conducted in 2013. Overall, we observed 784 groups (14,608 individuals) of khulan and 1,033 groups (3,955 individuals) of goitered gazelles during the four surveys. The abundance estimates for 2013 were 35,899 (95% CI 22,680–40,537) khulan and 28,462 (95% CI 21,326–37,987) goitered gazelles. These estimates were congruent with the results from the aerial survey, which overlapped spatially and temporally with our ground-based survey. Our findings confirm that Mongolia's Gobi Desert supports the largest population of khulan and goitered gazelles in the world, and we provide a critical update on the status of the two species.

The Andean bear (Tremarctos ornatus) is listed as a vulnerable species by the International Union for Conservation of Nature; however, the lack of knowledge regarding different aspects of its ecology, biogeography, and abundance hinders the conservation efforts of researchers and managers. To address the high cost of acquiring information and the lack of systematized data, we created a database for records of this species in Peru. We compiled Andean bear occurrence records in Peru for the years 1980–2018 from different sources, including direct observations, indirect observations (footprints, food remains, bear beds and scats), and camera-trap photographs from published literature, gray literature, and environmental impact studies. With collaboration from many colleagues, we obtained 973 records and created an open access database by using the Global Biodiversity Information Facility data repository. We encourage the use, publication, and sharing of raw data from studies and opportunistic observations to gain better knowledge and support for the conservation of the Andean bear and other threatened species.

Segregation of the daily activity patterns is considered and important mechanism facilitating the coexistance of competing species. Here, we evaluated if temporal separation existed among jaguar (Panthera onca), puma (Puma concolor) and ocelot (Leopardus pardalis) and if their activity patterns were related to that of a particular prey. We used camera trap records to estimate the activity schedules of these predators and their prey. We used the coefficient of overlapping (Δ; ranging from 0 to 1) to quantify the temporal interactions between predators and prey, and calculated confidence intervals from bootstrap samples. Strong temporal overlap occurred among the three felids (Δ = 0.63 - 0.82) in both dry and rainforests. However, a greater temporal separation was observed between the closest competitors (jaguar and puma, puma and ocelot). Jaguar and puma had a strong temporal overlap with medium and large-sized prey, while ocelots’ activity matched that of small-sized prey. High overlapping coefficients among the felids suggest that temporal segregation is not the main mechanism facilitating their coexistence in these areas. However, fine-scale or spatiotemporal differences in their activity patterns might contribute to their coexistence in tropical environments. La segregación de los patrones de actividad diaria es considerado un importante mecanismo para la coexistencia de especies competidoras. En este estudio, evaluamos si existía separación temporal entre el jaguar (Panthera onca), puma (Puma concolor) y ocelote (Leopardus pardalis), y si sus patrones de actividad se relacionaban con los de sus presas potenciales. Utilizamos registros de cámaras trampa para estimar los patrones de actividad de los felinos y sus presas. Usamos el coeficiente de traslape (Δ; de 0 a 1) para cuantificar las interacciones temporales entre depredadores y presas y calculamos los intervalos de confianza mediante bootstrapping. Observamos un fuerte traslape temporal (Δ= 0.63-0.82) entre los felinos tanto en el bosque seco como en el lluvioso. La mayor segregación temporal ocurrió entre los competidores más cercanos (jaguar y puma, puma y ocelote). El jaguar y el puma tuvieron un fuerte traslape con las presas medianas y grandes, mientras que el ocelote se traslapó con presas más pequeñas. Los altos coeficientes de traslape entre los felinos sugieren que la segregación temporal no es el mecanismo principal de coexistencia en estos sitios. Sin embargo, pequeñas diferencias en los patrones de actividad (e.g. picos de actividad desfasados) podrían contribuir a su coexistencia en ambientes tropicales.

An understanding of a species’ diet is required to make sound conservation and management decisions. Traditionally, morphological analyses of undigested hard parts from food items remaining in scats have been used to assess diets. More recently, molecular analyses of scats have been used to identify plant and prey species’ DNA, but no studies have compared morphological and molecular diet analyses for large, terrestrial carnivores. We used molecular tools to determine the percentage of black bear and coyote scats that contained 3 common prey species (caribou, moose, and snowshoe hares) in Newfoundland and compared the results to a traditional morphological analysis. We found that a ranking of relative prey frequencies was consistent between the 2 methods, but molecular methods tended to detect prey species in a greater percentage of scats for all prey species. However, there were individual scats in which a prey species was detected by morphological methods only, and we provide evidence that molecular methods could result in false negatives if prey DNA is not uniformly distributed throughout a scat or as a result of PCR inconsistency. We also found that the per sample cost comparison between morphological and molecular analyses was dependent upon whether or not a molecular test was needed to identify scats to the predator species, the cost of developing molecular methods, and the number of samples being processed. We recommend that controlled feeding studies be performed to validate molecular methods and investigate the utility of molecular techniques to estimate the proportions of food items consumed.

Understanding spatiotemporal variability in prey accessibility is important for disentangling predator-prey interactions and is relevant to management interventions to reduce predation. Recently, caribou (Rangifer tarandus) in Newfoundland declined by 66%, with calf predation by black bears (Ursus americanus) implicated as a major proximate mechanism of the decline. Most predation occurs when calves are aggregated on calving grounds. We used telemetry data from 271 caribou and 45 black bears in 2 caribou herd ranges to examine spatial variability in calf accessibility, identify the distribution of potentially predatory bears, and assess the aggregative response of bears to the calf resource. We predicted whether a bear was a visitor to a calving ground during the calving season (a potentially predatory bear) based upon its sex, the herd range it occupied, its distance to the calving grounds, and the season. The distribution of potentially predatory bears and their degree of segregation from non-predatory bears varied seasonally. The probability of a bear visiting the calving grounds during calving decreased with increasing distance from the calving grounds, and was greater for males than for females in all seasons at distances beyond 2.4 km from the calving grounds. Residency time of bears increased in the calving grounds of 1 herd during calving, suggesting an aggregative response to neonates in that area. For both herds, the estimated distribution of potentially predatory bears was much larger than the calving grounds, illustrating that the relevant scale of predator-prey interactions may extend far beyond the area where lethal encounters occur. Our work highlights the value of examining spatiotemporal dynamics of predator movements prior to implementing ecosystem manipulations designed to reduce predation and provides a modeling framework that can be used to guide management interventions in systems with aggregated prey. © 2015 The Wildlife Society.

Hybridization presents a unique challenge for conservation biologists and managers. While hybridization is an important evolutionary process, hybridization is also a threat formany native species. The endangered species recovery effort for the red wolf Canis rufus is a classic system for understanding and addressing the challenges of hybridization. From 1987?1993, 63 red wolves were released from captivity in eastern North Carolina, USA, to establish a free-ranging, non-essential experimental population. By 1999, managers recognized hybridization with invasive coyotes Canis latrans was the single greatest threat to successful recovery, and an adaptive management plan was adopted with innovative approaches for managing the threat of hybridization. Here we review the application and results of the adaptive management efforts from 1993 to 2013 by comparing: (1) the numbers of wolves, coyotes, and hybrids captured, (2) the numbers of territorial social groups with presumed breeding capabilities, (3) the number of red wolf and hybrid litters documented each year and (4) the degree of coyote introgression into the wild red wolf gene pool. We documented substantial increases in the number of known red wolves and red wolf social groups from 1987–2004 followed by a plateau and slight decline by 2013.The number of red wolf litters exceeded hybrid litters each year and the proportion of hybrid litters per year averaged 21%. The genetic composition of the wild red wolf population is estimated to include < 4% coyote ancestry from recent introgression since reintroduction. We conclude that the adaptive management plan was effective at reducing the introgression of coyote genes into the red wolf population, but population recovery of red wolves will require continuation of the current management plan, or alternative approaches, for the foreseeable future. More broadly, we discuss the lessons learned from red wolf adaptive management that could assist other endangered species recovery efforts facing the challenge of minimizing hybridization.

There have been few targeted studies of small felids in Sumatra and there is little information on their ecology. As a result there are no specific management plans for the species on Sumatra. We examined data from a long-term camera trapping effort, and used Maximum Entropy Modeling to assess the habitat use and distribution of Sunda clouded leopards (Neofelis diardi), Asiatic golden cats (Pardofelis temminckii), leopard cats (Prionailurus bengalensis), and marbled cats (Pardofelis marmorata) in Bukit Barisan Selatan National Park. Over a period of 34,166 trap nights there were low photo rates (photo events/100 trap nights) for all species; 0.30 for golden cats, 0.15 for clouded leopards, 0.10 for marbled cats, and 0.08 for leopard cats. There is overlap in the predicted distributions of clouded leopards, golden cats, and marbled cats; indicating areas of high conservation importance for these species within the park. The predicted distribution of leopard cats was discrete from the other species which is important to consider in the development of conservation strategies. This study provides important documentation of small felid distribution in Sumatra, information for the development of management strategies within the park, and a basis upon which to develop future research for the species.

Prey abundance and prey vulnerability vary across space and time, but we know little about how they mediate predator-prey interactions and predator foraging tactics. To evaluate the interplay between prey abundance, prey vulnerability and predator space use, we examined patterns of black bear (Ursus americanus) predation of caribou (Rangifer tarandus) neonates in Newfoundland, Canada using data from 317 collared individuals (9 bears, 34 adult female caribou, 274 caribou calves). During the caribou calving season, we predicted that landscape features would influence calf vulnerability to bear predation, and that bears would actively hunt calves by selecting areas associated with increased calf vulnerability. Further, we hypothesized that bears would dynamically adjust their foraging tactics in response to spatiotemporal changes in calf abundance and vulnerability (collectively, calf availability). Accordingly, we expected bears to actively hunt calves when they were most abundant and vulnerable, but switch to foraging on other resources as calf availability declined. As predicted, landscape heterogeneity influenced risk of mortality, and bears displayed the strongest selection for areas where they were most likely to kill calves, which suggested they were actively hunting caribou. Initially, the per-capita rate at which bears killed calves followed a type-I functional response, but as the calving season progressed and calf vulnerability declined, kill rates dissociated from calf abundance. In support of our hypothesis, bears adjusted their foraging tactics when they were less efficient at catching calves, highlighting the influence that predation phenology may have on predator space use. Contrary to our expectations, however, bears appeared to continue to hunt caribou as calf availability declined, but switched from a tactic of selecting areas of increased calf vulnerability to a tactic that maximized encounter rates with calves. Our results reveal that generalist predators can dynamically adjust their foraging tactics over short time-scales in response to changing prey abundance and vulnerability. Further, they demonstrate the utility of integrating temporal dynamics of prey availability into investigations of predator-prey interactions, and move towards a mechanistic understanding of the dynamic foraging tactics of a large omnivore.

Much of Mongolia’s rangelands are under state control and managed via traditional land use practices and are habitat for numerous wildlife species harvested for their meat and fur. Political and economic transformations that have been occurring since the early 1990’s continues to affect all aspects of Mongolian society. To cope during periods of economic hardship, many turned to harvesting wildlife resources for income and subsistence and this resulted in precipitous declines of some populations, marmots for example. Interviews with herding households in Mongolia’s eastern steppe region were conducted to better determine how wildlife resources (Mongolian gazelle, Siberian marmot, red foxes, corsac foxes, and gray wolf) are utilized and valued by herding families. Hunting, carried out by 65% of interviewees, returned an average of $103±172 dollars per household. The number of individuals hunted of any particular species during the previous year ranged widely - 46% of households hunted an average of 8±9 Mongolian gazelles (the equivalent of a small cow), 31% hunted 5±5 corsac foxes, 29% hunted 42±47 marmots, 22% hunted 3±3 red foxes, and 17% hunted 3±2 gray wolves. Differences in mean annual income between hunting and non-hunting households were similar ($1,292±1,132 vs. $1,080±1,196) however the median difference was greater ($1,009 vs $749). However, non-hunting households owned significantly more livestock than hunting households (168±183 vs. 93±92 Livestock Units), and the proportion of hunting households living below the poverty line was higher. Households that were larger or had few numbers of livestock were more likely to engage in hunting than smaller households with more livestock. Household and livestock variables were also significant predictors of a households likelihood of hunting Mongolian gazelle, Siberian marmot, and corsac fox, but not for red fox or gray wolf. Wildlife management policies will likely receive greater acceptance and compliance if subsistence hunting needs were incorporated.

Large carnivores such as dholes ( Cuon alpinus) have been persecuted and eradicated from certain areas because of the perception that they pose significant threats to livestock. We conducted interviews to examine which variables predict local people's attitude towards dholes. We opportunistically sampled 791 respondents (≥ 18 years of age) in 34 villages that were within 10 km of one of seven targeted protected areas in southeastern Thailand. We used Random Forests to analyze responses to 20 questions concerning respondent demography; knowledge of, perceived occurrence of, and personal attitudes toward dholes; and frequency of forest visits. Respondents agreed dholes should be eliminated based heavily on whether or not they 1) considered dholes dangerous and 2) believed dholes will attack a person. Most villagers, however, held neutral or positive attitudes toward dholes; only 12% of participants stated that dholes should be eliminated in the wild. Overall, we found an encouraging social climate for dholes in Thailand. Our findings support the need for enhanced efforts to teach people to distinguish dholes from jackals ( Canis aureus) and to encourage students to experience nature.

Habitat selection for calving by ungulates is an important behavioral trait because it affects neonate survival. Generally, ungulate calving site selection varies by vulnerability to predators, local topography, habitat quality and level of human disturbance. The Mongolian saiga (Saiga tatarica mongolica) is endemic to Mongolia where a threatened population of ∼7000 exists in the northern Gobi Desert. We analyzed factors that could affect selection of saiga calving locations in the Sharga Nature Reserve, western Mongolia, using data obtained from ground surveys over 4 years between 2008 and 2012. Multiple factors explain calving location selection by saiga antelopes, based on the results of a generalized linear mixed model within a use availability framework. Individual saiga females preferred calving locations that were away from settlements and closer to water sources and avoided steeper slopes in comparison with random locations. These results demonstrate that the choice of calving locations for saiga antelope is driven by both internal and external factors. Understanding which factors influence calving location selection for saiga provides insights to protect important habitats.