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Translation abstract Application areas of calculation models for the torsional load‐bearing capacity of segment joints – Wind turbines with annular cross‐sectionWind turbines play a decisive role in the reorientation of our energy supply. The torsional load‐bearing behaviour of the towers must be analysed in detail and suitable calculation models developed and established to ensure the safe and resource‐saving construction of these plants. In recent years, two important models have been developed to determine the torsional resistance of the horizontal segment joints of wind towers. However, it has not yet been possible to specify their areas of application. Using new test data and analyses, it has now been possible to determine the mechanical validity limits of the models. With the parameter space presented in this paper, the areas of application of the most important calculation models for the torsional load‐bearing capacity of dry joints with annular cross‐sections can be defined and thus an assignment can also be made for wind turbine towers commonly used in practice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With the development of wind energy, the unit capacity of wind turbine is becoming larger and the height of the support tower is getting higher. Limited by the transport conditions, the diameter of the tubular steel tower cannot further increase with the increase of the tower height, which results in the lower natural frequencies of the tower. The higher and more slender wind turbine towers are more sensitive to the external excitation and many tower collapses have occurred in recent years because of the interplay with the longer rotor blades. A 2 MW wind turbine system with a 120 m full steel tubular tower is taken as an example in this study to research the nonlinear coupling vibration mechanism under the normal operation case and the emergency shut-down case. An integrated model of large-scale wind turbine system including the tower, blades, hub, and nacelle is established by the open-source software FAST to study its nonlinear interaction vibration mechanism. Under the normal operation load case, the acceleration response of the steel wind turbine tower is greatly affected by the rotational frequency of the rotor. The maximum accelerations in the fore-aft and side-side directions both appear around the middle-upper height of the tower. Under the emergency shut-down load case, the maximum fore-aft acceleration response appears at the top of the tower, but the maximum side-side response still appears around the middle-upper height of the tower. The first-order vibration mode plays a dominant role in the top fore-aft acceleration and the second-order vibration mode has great contribution to the side-side acceleration under the emergency shut-down load case. The numerical results of this study can provide insight into the vibration control mechanism of the full steel tower. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The First Egongyan Bridge in Chongqing, China was opened to traffic on December 27, 2000. It carries six-lanes of city traffic and two pedestrian paths, one on each side. It is a 600 m span suspension bridge. It was planned that the two pedestrian paths might eventually be converted to transit tracks in the future. However, with the rapid increase in urban traffic, the deck was transformed into an 8-lane bridge instead. Therefore, a new bridge parallel and adjacent to the old bridge was built for the rail transit. For aesthetic reasons, the city decided that the new bridge should also be a suspension bridge, with the same span length and tower height as the first bridge. The First Egongyan Bridge was a true suspension bridge with main cables anchored to ground anchors. However, the new bridge bridge's proximity to the first bridge necessitated the construction of a self-anchored suspension bridge that did away with a second set of ground anchors. This 600 m span happened to be the world's longest span for a self-anchored suspension bridge. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Kırıkkale University Journal of Social Sciences is the property of Kirikkale University Journal of Social Science (KUJSS) and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Load‐bearing capacity tests on large scale test specimens for modular polygon tower sections of wind turbines The verification for stability and fatigue of steel towers for onshore wind‐turbines require large dimensions due to the high static and dynamic loads. Since, the rated power as well as the hub height will further increase for wind turbines in the future, also the dimensions of the tower must be increased. Some kind of turbines will require a tower base diameter of > 4.5 m. Tubular steel sections with this dimensions cannot be transported (economically) by road. Therefore modular construction methods have been developed, whereby the tubular steel sections consist of longitudinally divided segments, which will finally assembled on site. Furthermore, the detail design of the connections between the structural components is also a challenge when planning wind turbines for the next generation. As a technical alternative to the existing tower configurations, a concept for a modular polygon tower made of steel is presented, where single plate segments can be connected along the longitudinal edges using extruded profiles so that no further bolted or welded connections are required for the final assembly on site. This technical proposal allows a longitudinal manufacturing of tower segments with steel plates but without any formwork with rolling and bending machines. As part of a research project, the technical feasibility of a modular polygon tower for a hub height of 200 m and a wind turbine class with 10 MW rated power was analysed to offer technical solutions for the next generation of onshore wind turbines. Load cases were generated for a fictitious reference wind turbine to carry out a pre‐design for the tower sections. A test programme was created on the basis of the calculated tower dimensions and ultimate load bearing tests were carried out on test specimens at a scale of 1 : 10. This paper presents the results of the experimental investigations, comparing the load‐bearing capacity of the various tower configurations and the observed failure mechanisms are explained. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Based on the ANSYS finite element software, the NREL 5 MW monopile offshore wind turbine tower system was modeled in 3D. The influence of different wind speeds on the dynamic characteristics of the tower structure was simulated and analyzed under the full consideration of the soil structure coupling effect and the impeller rotation. The six average wind speeds and the corresponding impeller speeds in the interval between the cut-in wind speed of 3 m/s and the cut-out wind speed of 25 m/s were selected as simulation conditions. The analysis results show that, with the increase of wind speed and impeller speed, the modal frequency of the tower structure gradually increases, and the first two modal frequencies change most obviously. Moreover, the peak value of the tower displacement increases as the wind speed and impeller speed increases, but the amplitude decreases. The displacement shows a non-linear growth trend. The equivalent stress value of the tower increases as the wind speed and impeller speed increases, but the change trend is different from the displacement, which is roughly linear. The fatigue life of the tower decreases sharply, but they are far more than the actual working hours, the fatigue damage and safety factor hazard values are mainly distributed at the bottom of the tower and at the single pile, consistent with the maximum equivalent stress distribution position.

Telecommunication plays a crucial role in the modern society, and its importance in Ghana’s rapid digital and economic transformation is very relevant. Ghana is however confronted with huge telecommunication towers doted in the skylines of its major cities with some towers mounted in homes and on roof top of structures. The objective of this research was to investigate the major challenges associated with the urban deployment of the towers and suggest sustainable approach to its deployment. Using quantitative descriptive design, data was collected from the three leading telecommunication companies in Ghana receiving a response rate of 77.6%. Analysis of responses showed that, land acquisition and use challenges, compliance with regulatory and statutory issues, community occupational health issues, neighbourhood challenges and urban planning regulations are the key factors that affect the deployment of towers in Ghana. The research postulates that the urban deployment of telecommunication towers would require an integrated and regulated planning approach that constrains environmental impact, diminishes land use, optimises existing urban infrastructure through co-location and the deployment of advanced technologies such as Low Earth Orbit (LEO) Satellites, High Altitude Platforms (HAPs) and Long-Term Evolution (LTE) and 5G in managing the growing urban demand for urban telecommunication.

Copyright of Power Generation Technology is the property of Power Generation Technology Editorial Office and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The service environment of offshore wind turbine (OWT) support structures is harsh, and it is extremely difficult to replace these structures during their operational lifespan, making their failure a catastrophic event. The structural health monitoring (SHM) of OWT support structures is a crucial aspect of operational maintenance for OWT support structures, aiming to mitigate significant financial losses. This paper systematically summarizes the current monitoring methods and technologies for OWT support structures, including towers and foundations. Through the review of monitoring content and the evolution of monitoring techniques for supporting structures, it delves deeper into the challenges faced by wind turbine monitoring and highlights potential avenues for future development. Then, the current damage identification techniques for OWT towers and foundations are analyzed, exploring various methods including model-based, vibration-based, artificial intelligence and hybrid fault diagnosis methods. The article also examines the advantages and disadvantages of each approach and outlines potential future directions for research and development in this field. Furthermore, it delves into the current damage identification techniques for OWT towers and foundations, discussing prevalent challenges and future directions in this domain. This status review can provide reference and guidance for the monitoring design of OWT support structures, and provide support for the fault diagnosis of OWT support structures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article deals with study of the Belgorod line as an archaeological monument. The first attempts at archaeological research of this defense line are considered, the results of research in recent years, when the relevance of this topic was identified at the state level, are summarized. The results of exploration scientific work are analyzed, including large-scale exploration studies, excavations of fortified cities, earthworks and other field fortifications. Some theoretical and methodological problems are touched upon, including issues of systematization and access to reconstruction. According to the authors, the archaeological study of defensive lines can be separated into a separate section of the archeology of the late Middle Ages, since the results obtained during the research have great scientific and social potential.

Iasos, an ancient city situated approximately 26 km west of Milas, is located in the Kıyıkışlacık Neighborhood of Milas District in the Mugla Province. The ancient settlement was originally founded on a rocky peninsula in the shelter of a deep and extensive bay, once called the Gulf of Iasos (Sinus Iasicus) and now known as the Gulf of Mandalya or Güllük. To the east beyond a small cultivated plain rises the mountain chain known as the Grion (Paşalı Dağ). The ancient settlement was established on a rocky peninsula in a deep and long cove called the Gulf of Iasos. Legend has it that the colonists who came from Argos established the settlement. Two counterforts, now submerged, close the western harbor of Iasos. The traces found in the western harbor are on the same building level as the Agora, and they date back to the Early Imperial Period. A tower was added to the small counterfort east of the harbor. Comparisons with similar retaining walls in Cyprus and specific historical arguments suggest that the construction date corresponds to the 12th-13th centuries AD when the Byzantine Empire was in decline and the defense system against the dangers of the sea was strengthened. During the research in the region of the western harbor, stone blocks were discovered underwater in some areas and nowadays it is possible to see these findings.

To increase the productivity of boom cranes, the operation of individual mechanisms is combined. At the same time, dynamic loads on structural elements, drive mechanisms and loads on a flexible suspension increase, which reduces the reliability of crane operation and increases energy losses. Therefore, the research aims to consider the problem of the dynamics of the joint movement of the mechanisms for load slewing and hoisting of a boom crane. To study the dynamics of the joint movement of the mechanisms, the boom system was represented by a mechanical system with 6DOF, where the basic movement of the mechanisms and the oscillatory movement of the structural links with elastic and dissipative properties, as well as the load on a flexible suspension in the plane of crane slewing and hoisting were considered. For such a mechanical system of a crane, the differential equations of the joint motion of the crane slewing and hoisting mechanisms were developed. The obtained equations are a system of the second order nonlinear differential equations, for solving which a numerical method in the form of a computer program was used. Using the developed program, the dynamics of the joint movement of the mechanisms of a jib crane with specific numerical parameters were calculated. Based on the calculations, a dynamic analysis of the joint movement of the mechanisms for slewing and hoisting the load of a jib crane with a hoisting boom was carried out, which revealed high-frequency vibrations of links with elastic and dissipative properties, as well as low-frequency oscillations of the load on a flexible suspension. The greatest impact of oscillations is observed during the start-up of mechanisms, where high-frequency oscillations dampen during the transient process, and low-frequency oscillations dampen over a fairly significant period. To improve the dynamic properties of the mechanisms for turning and hoisting a load during their joint movement, it is proposed to optimise the mode of movement in the areas of transient processes (start-up, braking). The research results can be used in the development and operation of cranes in mechanical engineering, construction, and other industries

Copyright of Cuadernos del Centro de Estudios de Diseño y Comunicación is the property of Cuadernos del Centro de Estudios de Diseno y Comunicacion and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The dynamic inlet conditions of variable wind direction had an obvious influence on the response of wind turbine stress and power, and accurately analyzing their changing characteristics is of great significance to enhancing wind turbines’ stability and efficient operation. Experiments were performed in a wind tunnel, where the wind turbine was mounted on a rotating platform to simulate dynamic changes in wind direction at prescribed speeds and angles. The wind turbine’s stress and power were measured. Results show that the stress was minimally reduced by 4.4% (tower) and 1.7% (blade) when the wind direction change angle was small. Maximum stress reduction of 92% (tower) and 93% (blade) with increasing wind direction change angle. As the wind direction change speed increased, the magnitude of the drop in blade stress decreased by 6% ~32%. The decrease in power coefficient and rotational speed at small wind direction change angles and large wind direction change speeds were not significant, and the fluctuations were more obvious. The coupling of aerodynamic deterioration and inertial effects during dynamic changes in wind direction was one of the main reasons for the variations in the wind turbine power and stress response. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This essay explores the relationship between the Tarot and the poetry of W.B. Yeats. It argues that Yeats was deeply fascinated by the Tarot, and that this fascination is evident in many of his poems. The essay begins by discussing Yeats's interest in the occult. Yeats was a member of several occult societies, including the Hermetic Society and the Golden Dawn. He was also a friend of Madame Blavatsky, the founder of the Theosophical Society. The essay then goes on to examine the ways in which the Tarot is used in Yeats's poetry. Yeats often uses Tarot imagery to create a sense of mystery and suspense. He also uses the Tarot to explore themes of love, death, and rebirth. The Tarot provides Yeats with a way to explore the hidden depths of the human psyche. It also helps him to create a poetry that is both beautiful and profound. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Imafronte. Revista de Historia del Arte is the property of Servicio de Publicaciones de la Universidad de Murcia and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Oral narratives and texts create an effect area from the local to the universal culture and with temporal approaches from the individual to the society. Many events, phenomenons and notions which are carried to the mental world of the society with texts, in time, become settled implementations and behaviours. In social positioning under changing conditions, the narratives and texts which include woman provides continuity. The women’s voices whose presences are shaped with the decisions of other’s and male’s thoughts are heard yet via others and men. While passing from the oral narrative to the written, reflecting women’s biological gender differences , so as to create the perception of “the other” attracts attention. The thing that take attraction is that the women in the narratives, rather than her biological gender, is exposed to gender configuration which derives from sanctions and behaviour forms approved by the society. In the narratives and works named as Rapunzel, Maiden’s Tower and Hurşidname, even before their birth, a life area which lives ordinary people is not prepared for women. Women are not allowed to decide on their bodies and lives. In Rapunzel, Maiden’s Tower and Hurşid ü Ferahşad, it is seen that men, especially the one who is closed to the woman character, is in position of decider on behalf of woman. These works mention about family and society based an asset configuration on women’s biological gender. In this work, the tale of Rapunzel who was isolated from society because of religious and cultural norms, The Maiden’s Tower legend which explains a girl’s tale to the island-shaped towerby her father fort he purpose of saving her from dangers and Hurşid ü Ferşad mathnawi which is one of the important ones in terms of text fiction are approached and compared on account of common sides on viewing women. Firstly, the fact that these narratives and works are not just a text and their contexts cause positioning of woman in the plane of family and society is introduced. These texts give opportunity to search, determine and analyze samenesses of social viewing comes from beyond centuries towards to woman even though these samenesses belong to different cultures and improve in different types.

When analyzing structures, there are several different methods that are used. The method most often used in analysis is the finite element method. The finite element method was also used in the elaboration of the problem herein, and it is related to displacement in plate structures. Numerical models will be approximated by finite triangular elements in the CYPE program and by finite square elements in the TOWER 3D Model Builder program. In the end, a comparison will be made of the results and of the influence of the type and density of the finite element mesh as well as the quality of the concrete on the result of the analysis.

The demise of the World Trade Towers grotesquely inflated the sublime! Edmund Burke’s inclusion of fear and awe as elements of aesthetics has come to dominate representational canons, but the extreme effect of the 9/11 attacks rendered the concept intolerable while subsequent architectural work seems to have reacted with the proliferation of extreme and often unsettling contortions, vertiginous cantilevers and unbalanced profiles! Standing for the machinations of the previous millennium, upon their extirpation these minimal monoliths became the most potent auspices for the next. Before falling they were extraordinarily blank formally while provoking sectarian rage toward the institutions they stood for - New York, the U.S. and multinational commerce. An improbable history of the violent demise of his buildings plagued their designer as well! Collapse made them true monuments in the funereal sense of the word and profoundly significant as the globe drifts toward dystopia, advantaging plutocracy and distilling resentment in many cultures.

The life extension of a wind turbine is receiving more and more attention as many wind turbines reach their design life. The fatigue damage of an existing wind turbine under actual wind conditions is one of the useful information for the life extension decision. In this paper, an approximate expression of fatigue damage at the base of the tower is proposed for a reference turbine as a function of wind speed, turbulence intensity and wind direction. Next, the wind conditions at three locations measured by nacelle-mounted anemometers are presented. The fatigue damage at the base of the tower is then calculated for the site wind conditions and the design wind conditions for the reference turbine. The effects of the wind conditions on the fatigue damage are evaluated. The difference in fatigue damage between the site wind condition and the design wind condition is separated according to the effects of wind speed, turbulence intensity and wind direction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Machinery & Energetics is the property of National University of Life & Environmental Sciences of Ukraine and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The antiquarian Martín de Ximena Jurado was a pioneer in the historical cartography of the old Kingdom of Jaén (Andalusia, Spain), where he tried to represent emblematic areas with their military defences with his particular graphic language. Not surprisingly, this territory has a high concentration of medieval fortifications. The data and drawings that he made of castles, towers, and defensive enclosures show a special interest in the militarisation of sites and places. He went beyond a simple toponymic study aimed only at finding a correspondence between the ancient name and the location of a settlement based on the evidence provided by coins and inscriptions. The medieval fortifications that he mapped were not drawn in ruins as one would expect they would be in the mid-17th century, but with their most characteristic construction elements. This fact gives it great relevance, as it represents the idealised hypothesis of the state of these constructions at the time of the Castilian conquest in the decades following the Almohad debacle in the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa (1212). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Generating electric power using solar thermal systems is effective, particularly for countries with high solar potential. In order to decide on a relevant location to implement the solar tower plant and develop the mathematical model of a no-blocking heliostat field, a meteorological assessment was discussed in this paper. In addition, a parametric study was examined to evaluate the effect of the designed parameters (heliostat size, heliostat height from the ground, tower height, receiver aperture, and the minimum radius) on the solar field's performance. The preliminary solar field was then compared to the final design using the optimal design parameters. The obtained results showed that "Tamanrasset City" satisfied the necessary conditions for implementing a solar tower plant. According to preliminary solar field generation, no heliostat blocked its neighbor with a blocking efficiency of 100%. An analysis of its performance revealed that the optimized solar field would be capable of producing 15, 6571 MW, operating at an optical efficiency of 76.95%, and the enhancement rate of both efficiency and power output was 8.1%. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Existing heritage buildings can be especially vulnerable to earthquakes. They were designed only considering gravity loads and some of them are located in earthquake prone areas, such as the southwestern Iberian Peninsula. Besides, there is a high uncertainty in the definition of their constructive parameters and complex geometry. Due to that, it is paramount to develop accurate numerical models to obtain a reliable assessment of their seismic behaviour. Given this, the main objective of this manuscript is to analyse the seismic behaviour of the Giralda tower, located in Seville (Spain). It was declared as a Word Heritage Site of Outstanding Universal Value by the UNESCO in 1987. Seville has a moderate seismic hazard, but it has been shown that the soft alluvial strata amplify the seismic action. The tower has a brick and stone masonry structure, which was constructed in several construction phases. A 3D Finite Element Model of the tower has been developed using OpenSees software, employing a 3D CAD model. Modal analyses and nonlinear static analyses have been applied to calibrate and to assess the tower's seismic behaviour. The results showed significant differences in function of the load pattern. It should be remarked that the boundary conditions have a notable effect upon getting a good calibration of the model. Regarding the damage, it has been found to match the historic records: the ramps would be ruined and, in the outer wall, it would be concentrated near the openings, especially close to the belfry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of TÜBA-AR: Turkish Academy of Sciences, Journal of Archaeology is the property of Turkish Academy of Sciences and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

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Electrified railways are inevitable crossing with transmission line of electricity power system, and the tower may collapse and invade the railway under extreme climate which threaten the safety. To solve this problem, a tower model with unbalanced force of transmission line was established, and stress and strain characteristics of tower were calculated. The impact of the collapse tower on the protective structure was analyzed and the design strength of the protective casing hole was proposed. The research results show that, when ground wires breaks and unbalanced force occurs, there is obvious deformation on the top of the tower. When there are two phases line broken on the one side of the tower, the deformation appears at the center of gravity position. The maximum impact stress increases with the increase of the number of broken lines, the maximum impact force is nearly 900 kN, and the collision time is close to 0. 6 s. A defense structure designed for the tower collapse and invasion of railway with 35 kV power line is proposed and could provide support data to the design of electric power line protection shed hole. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

When analyzing structures, there are several different methods that are used. The method most often used in analysis is the finite element method. The finite element method was also used in the elaboration of the problem herein, and it is related to displacement in plate structures. Numerical models will be approximated by finite triangular elements in the CYPE program and by finite square elements in the TOWER 3D Model Builder program. In the end, a comparison will be made of the results and of the influence of the type and density of the finite element mesh as well as the quality of the concrete on the result of the analysis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Corvids are known for their urban exploitation, often using artificial infrastructure to roost and nest. In many areas of its distribution range, the pied crow (Corvus albus) is often common in areas of anthropogenic land use, often breeding and foraging near human settlements. In this study, we monitored pied crow use of cellular telecommunication towers as nesting sites in Pietermaritzburg, South Africa, during three breeding seasons. We found that of the 36 towers situated across the urban mosaic landscape, pied crows used 17 (47.2%) as nesting sites while 19 were not used. Many towers were used in subsequent years as nesting sites. Overall, 41 pied crow nests on towers in urban mosaic landscapes were counted by the end of the study. Towers had a mean (± SE) distance of 1595.2 ± 151.0 m between them and were located mainly in the suburbs of Edendale and Northdale. As shown by the hotspot analysis and spatial distribution of used and unused towers, it was unclear why some towers were not being used as nesting sites. We assessed the relationship between pied crow nesting sites and land cover features. We found that tower nesting was best explained by cropland (wi = 0.58), forest (wi = 0.94), grassland (wi = 0.66), schools (wi = 0.56) and relief (wi = 0.56). The continued persistence of pied crows in urban mosaic landscapes with natural and /or managed green spaces, the availability of anthropogenic infrastructure and food in these, and their behavioural plasticity will likely increase their numbers in such landscapes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wind turbine towers and their flange connections are highly fatigue loaded structures. Previous investigations have shown that initial parallel gaps between L‐flange connections, which are resulting from their respective flatness of the contact surfaces, can increase fatigue loads of the connecting fasteners significantly. Flange flatness and/or gap sizes in between flanges must comply with limitations given in relevant standards and therefore must be measured after the manufacturing process and/or during installation. More than 1900 flatness measurements of several offshore wind projects were collected and used to determine initial gaps between flanges analytically. A statistical evaluation allows to determine the distribution of expected gap sizes. The increase of gap height with increasing gap length can be described with linear correlations. Furthermore, the distributions of gap heights are approximated with log‐normal distributions. Parameters for generic log‐normal distributions are derived considering all performed mating simulations. Following the described methodology, gaps can be determined from any large number of flatness measurements. It is proposed to consider the results for flange design. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]