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Introduction: Sea urchin gonads (roe or uni) are considered a culinary delicacy worldwide. However, only a few species are considered edible and commercialized. The sea urchin Tripneustes depressus has generated the interest of producers in Baja California Sur, Mexico, due to the quality of its gonads. A biological basis for designing a management strategy is key to consider its commercial exploitation. Objective: To determine the reproductive season of T. depressus through description of the gonad stages and reproductive cycle, and to establish its relationship with environmental factors. Methods: We collected monthly samples (October 2016-September 2017), recording in-situ temperature and photoperiod. We evaluated a sample of 1 055 specimens for demographic characteristics, using total weight (g) and test diameter (cm). We also did a histological analysis of gonads from 178 individuals. Results: Average test diameter was 9.70 ± 0.03 cm (5-12.50 cm). Based on the proportion into the gonad of sexual (gametes) and somatic (nutritive phagocytes) cells, we propose five gonad stages (growing, premature, mature, spawning, and intergametic) for both sexes. There were two times of the year when gonads were heaviest and closely corresponded to the growing stage, coinciding with the highest proportions of nutritive phagocytes. Gonad development (growing and premature stages) peaks in the months with the longest daylight periods, with spawning in the shortest daylight periods. Conclusions: Gonad wet weight and adjusted gonad weight are good indicators of the reproductive season of T. depressus. The lowest gonad wet weights were matched the spawning peak in the shortest daylight period (January and March). Resumen Introducción: Las gónadas de erizo de mar (huevas o uni) se consideran un manjar culinario en todo el mundo. Sin embargo, solo unas pocas especies se consideran comestibles y se comercializan. El erizo de mar Tripneustes depressus ha generado el interés de productores de Baja California Sur, México, por la calidad de sus gónadas. Una base biológica es clave para diseñar una estrategia de manejo para T. depressus para considerar su explotación comercial. Objetivo: Determinar la época reproductiva de T. depressus a través de la descripción de los estadios de las gónadas y del ciclo reproductivo, y establecer su relación con factores ambientales. Métodos: Recolectamos muestras mensuales (octubre de 2016 a septiembre de 2017), registrando in-situ la temperatura y el fotoperiodo. Evaluamos una muestra de 1055 especímenes para las características demográficas, utilizando el peso total (g) y el diámetro de testa (cm). También hicimos el análisis histológico de las gónadas de 178 individuos. Resultados: El diámetro de la testa promedio fue de 9.70 ± 0.03 cm (5-12.50 cm). Con base en la proporción en la gónada de células sexuales (gametos) y somáticas (fagocitos nutritivos), proponemos cinco estadios gonádicos (crecimiento, prematuro, maduro, desove e intergamético) para ambos sexos. Hubo dos épocas del año en que las gónadas eran más pesadas y se correspondían estrechamente con la etapa de crecimiento, coincidiendo con las proporciones más altas de fagocitos nutritivos. El desarrollo de las gónadas (etapas de crecimiento y prematuro) alcanza su punto máximo en los meses con los periodos de luz más largos, con desove en los periodos de luz más cortos. Conclusiones: El peso húmedo de las gónadas y el peso ajustado de las gónadas son buenos indicadores de la temporada reproductiva de T. depressus. Los pesos húmedos más bajos de las gónadas coincidieron con el pico de desove en el período con luz diurna más corto (enero y marzo).

The microstructure of the primary spines in Asthenosoma varium exhibits two principal forms: sharp spines with a poison gland, on the aboral surface; and trumpet-shaped spines on the oral surface. The oral spines have four zones along the shaft with variations in the internal and external microstructure. Each zone exhibits microstructural detail which has also been seen in spines of the Diadematidae (particularly Echinothrix) and the Toxopneustidae (Lytechinus, Sphaerechinus and Toxopneustes). This chapter discusses the microstructural affinities with respect to the phylogeny and evolution of the regular echinoids. It examines gross spine-morphology and structure for differences between spines of a given type which might reflect their position on the test. In the light of these preliminary observations, primary spines of both types are prepared for scanning electron microscope examination. The originality of most of the echinothurid spines lies in the structure of the apical hoofshaped zone, a structure which also occurs in the aspidodiade-matids.

Sphaerechinus granularis (Lamarck, 1816) (Fig. 26) Reports for the Azores: Echinus brevispinosus Risso, 1826 — $ Drouët 1861: 210; Barrois 1888: 31; Sphaerechinus granularis (Lamarck, 1816) — $ Agassiz 1863: 23, 1872: 159–160, 452–453, pl. 5a, fig. 7, pl. 6, figs. 16–17; p.p. $ Agassiz 1881: 106–107; $ Barrois 1888: 109–110; $ Simroth 1888: 231, 233; John 1889: 285; $ Koehler 1895a: 225, 1898: 23; Jackson 1912: 162; $ Nobre 1924: 89, 1930: 69; $ H.L. Clark 1925: 140–141; Mortensen 1927a: 309–312, figs. 178–180; $ Cadenat 1938: 367–368; Nobre 1938: 119–120, figs. 48, 49, 66; Mortensen 1943b: 515–526, figs. 242c, 309– 314, pl. 39, figs. 1–4, pl. 40, figs. 1–5, pl. 41, figs. 1–7, pl. 56, figs. 1, 8, 10, pl. 25, fig. 13; $ Chapman 1955: 399; Harvey 1956: 51, 66; $ Tortonese 1965: 323–327, figs. 151–154; $ Marques 1983: 5; Pereira 1997: 334; $ Maciel & Gonçalves 1998: 182; $ Morton et al. 1998: 150–151, figs. 3–3L1, 8–1L; Pérez-Ruzafa et al. 2002: 285; $ Wirtz & Debelius 2003: 258; $ Cardigos et al. 2005: 159; García-Diez et al. 2005: 50; Mironov 2006: 112; Schultz 2006: 266–267, figs. 509–513; Haddad & Barreiros 2008: 9, fig. 3d; Micael & Costa 2010: 323; $ Micael et al. 2010: 329; Madeira et al. 2011: 250, figs. 5B, 6B; Micael et al. 2012: 4. See: Mortensen (1943b); Schultz (2006). Occurrence: Mediterranean Sea and northeast Atlantic; from Channel Islands to the Gulf of Guinea (Mortensen 1943b), including the Azores (Marques 1983), Madeira (Alves et al. 2001), Selvagens (Pérez-Ruzafa et al. 2002), Canaries (Mortensen 1927b), Cape Verde (Agassiz 1881) and Gorringe and Dacia seamounts (Mironov 2006). Depth: 0–120 m (Chapman 1955, Koukouras et al. 2007); AZO: 0–60 m (Chapman 1955, Marques 1983). Habitat: generally found on hard substrates (AZO), but also on Posidonia and Zostera meadows, silty sand or maërl bottoms (Mortensen 1943b, Koukouras et al. 2007). Larval stage: planktotrophic (Emlet 1995). Fossil fauna: remains of this species, spines and test fragments were found in Pleistocene sediments at Santa Maria Island (Madeira et al. 2011). Commercial value: edible (Tortonese 1965). Material examined: DBUA-ECH 025 (S„o Roque Islet, SMG, AZO, c. 37°44’37”N, 25°38’19”W, 2006.11.07, 3 m; 1 bt, D = 54 mm); DBUA-ECH 026 (S„o Roque Islet, SMG, AZO, c. 37°44’37”N, 25°38’19”W, 2006.11.07, 3–5 m; 1 bt, D = 85 mm); DBUA-ECH 027 (S„o Roque Islet, SMG, AZO, c. 37°44’37”N, 25°38’19”W, 2006.11.07, 3–5 m; 1 bt, D = 82 mm); DBUA-ECH 028 (S„o Roque Islet, SMG, AZO, c. 37°44’37”N, 25°38’19”W, 2006.11.07, 3–5 m; 1 bt, D = 63 mm); DBUA-ECH 030 (Banco D. Jo„o de Castro, AZO, c. 38°13’18”N, 26°36’12”W, 2006; 1 spm, D = 70 mm); DBUA-ECH 031 (Banco D. Jo„o de Castro, AZO, c. 38°13’18”N, 26°36’12”W, 1996.07.02, 30 m; 5 spms, D = 81–87 mm); DBUA-ECH 032 (Cerco, Caloura, SMG, AZO, c. 37°42’26”N, 25°30’37”W, 20 m; bt, D = 21 mm); DBUA-ECH 054 (Santa Cruz, GRA, AZO, c. 39°05’16”N, 28°00’25”W, 2010.08.02, intertidal; 1 spm, D = 11 mm); DBUA-ECH 140 (Poças de Santa Cruz, GRA, AZO, c. 39°05’16”N, 28°00’25”W, 2010.08.07, intertidal; 4 spms, D = 37–54 mm); DBUA-ECH 158 (FRM, AZO, c. 37°16’14”N, 24°46’52”W, 1990.06, 45 m; 2 spms, D = 6–11 mm); MB-NMHN 410–20786 (Baixinha, GRA, AZO, c. 39°05’13”N, 27°59’09”W, 1979; 2 spms, D = 92–100 mm); MB-NMHN 285–18681 [Pópulo (Praia Grande), SMG, AZO, c. 37°45’00”N, 25°37’24”W, 1980; 1 spm, D = 55 mm]; MB-NMHN 368–20744 (Horta harbour, FAY, AZO, c. 38°31’51”N, 28°37’23”W, 1979; 2 spms, D = 12–18 mm). Description: test circular, flattened orally, height reaching about 55–65%D, the peristome area is at most only slightly depressed. Apical disc hemicyclic, with Oc. I and V insert, though in the smaller specimens the latter can be exsert (D Remarks: Mortensen (1943b) reviewed the intraspecific variation in S. granularis, which included some of the Azorean specimens’ particularities, i. e. the higher number of pore pairs in the ambulacral plates. He rejected the hypothesis of specimens with six pore pairs per plate as belonging to a different species or a variety. Our results suggest that specimens with different number of pore pairs coexist in the same area. Furthermore, a higher number of pore pairs on the ambulacra is not exclusive for the Azores population. Agassiz (1872) reported specimens with six pore pairs from a batch from the Mediterranean Sea or Canaries (which location he did not specified), dismissing it as an ontological variation. Our observations, in contrast, agree with Mortensen (1943b) who showed that such differences are not dependent on the size of the animal. In spite of the intraspecific variation being overall constant throughout the species geographic range, we could not help notice the colour morph presented as ‘typical’ by several authors for the Mediterranean Sea is the purple/violet colour (e.g., Koehler 1921b; Mortensen 1927a; Tortonese 1965; Schultz 2006). In contrast, in the Azores, the brown colour morph appears very common if not the most common. Nonetheless, the presence of both colour morphs in the same area, or even clutching together to the same rock is not uncommon in the Azorean subtidal (personal observation). The red colour morph of Genocidaris maculata, a species also native to the archipelago, have historically been confused with juveniles of S. granularis (Figs. 26 J-L; Koehler 1921b; Mortensen 1943b). For example, Agassiz (1881) recorded S. granularis from the Azores (H.M.S. Challenger, sta 75: 38°37’N, 28°30’W). On re-examination of this material, later authors (e.g., H.L. Clark 1925; Mortensen 1943b) realized that Agassiz failed to notice the presence of a reddish colour morph of Genocidaris maculata among the batch (see remarks under Genocidaris maculata)., Published as part of Madeira, Patrícia, Kroh, Andreas, Cordeiro, Ricardo, De, António M., Martins, Frias & Ávila, Sérgio P., 2019, The Echinoderm Fauna of the Azores (NE Atlantic Ocean), pp. 1-231 in Zootaxa 4639 (1) on pages 114-116, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4639.1, http://zenodo.org/record/3342161, {"references":["Lamarck, J. - B. (1816) Histoire naturelle des animaux sans vertebres. Tome Second. Verdiere, Paris, 568 pp.","Risso, A. (1826) Histoire naturelle des principales productions de l'Europe Meridionale et particulierement de celles des environs de Nice et des Alpes Maritimes. Vol. 5. Levrault, Paris, viii + 403 pp., 10 pls. https: // doi. org / 10.5962 / bhl. title. 58984","Drouet, H. (1861) Element de la Faune acoreenne. J. B. Bailliere & Fils, Lubaires de L'Academie de Medicine, Paris, 245 pp.","Barrois, T. (1888) Liste des Echinodermes recueillis aux Acores durant les mois d'Ao r t et September 1887. Revue Biologique du Nord de la France, 1, 31 - 33 + 69 - 75 + 109 - 115.","Agassiz, A. (1863) List of the echinoderms sent to different Institutions in exchange for other specimens, with annotations. Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zo ˆ logy at Harvard College, 1 (2), 17 - 28.","Agassiz, A. (1872 - 1874) Revision of the Echini. Illustrated catalogue of the Museum of Comparative Zo ˆ logy at Harvard College, 7 (1 - 4), 1 - 762.","Agassiz, A. (1881) Report on the Echinoidea dredged by H. M. S. Challenger 1873 - 76. Report on the Scientific Results of the Voyage of H. M. S. Challenger, Zoology, 3, 1 - 321.","Simroth, H. (1888) Zur kenntnis der Azorenfauna. Archiv f ̡ r Naturgeschichte, Berlin, 54 (1), 179 - 234.","John, G. (1889) Ueber bohrende Seeigel. Archiv f ̡ r Naturgeschichte, 55 (1), 268 - 302.","Koehler, R. (1895 a) Note preliminaire sur les echinides recueillis pendant les campagnes de l'Hirondelle. Bulletin de la Societe Zoologique de France, 20, 223 - 227.","Koehler, R. (1898) Echinides et Ophiures provenant des campagnes du yacht Hirondelle (Golfe de Gascogne, Acores, Terre- Neuve). Resultats des campagnes scientifiques accomplies sur son yacht par Albert Ier Prince Souverain de Monaco, 12, 1 - 78.","Jackson, R. T. (1912) Phylogeny of the Echini with a revision of Palaeozoic species. Memoirs of the Boston Society of Natural History, 7, 1 - 491. https: // doi. org / 10.5962 / bhl. title. 4630","Nobre, A. (1924) Contribuicies para a Fauna dos Acores. Anais do Instituto de Zoologia da Universidade do Porto, 1, 41 - 90.","Nobre, A. (1930) Materiais para o estudo da fauna dos Acores. Instituto de Zoologia da Universidade do Porto, Porto, 108 pp.","Clark, H. L. (1925) A catalogue of the Recent sea urchins (Echinoidea) in the British Museum (Natural History). Trustees of the British Museum and Oxford University Press, London, 250 pp.","Mortensen, T. (1927 a) Handbook of the echinoderms of the British Isles. Oxford University Press, viii + 471 pp. https: // doi. org / 10.5962 / bhl. title. 6841","Cadenat, J. (1938) Liste des echinodermes recueillis pendant la cinquieme croisiere du navire de recherches President-Theodore- Tissier. Revue des Travaux de l'Institut des Peches Maritimes, 11, 349 - 375.","Nobre, A. (1938) Equinodermes de Portugal. 3 rd Edition. Companhia Editora do Minho, Barcelos, 215 pp.","Mortensen, T. (1943 b) A Monograph of the Echinoidea. III. 2. Camarodonta. I. Orthopsidae, Glyphocyphidae, Temnopleuridae and Toxopneustidae. C. A. Reitzel, Copenhagen, 553 pp.","Chapman, G. (1955) Aspects of the Fauna and Flora of the Azores, IV: Echinodermata. Annals and Magazine of Natural History, Series 12, 8 (89), 398 - 400. https: // doi. org / 10.1080 / 00222935508655657","Harvey, E. B. (1956) The American Arbacia and other sea urchins. Princeton University Press. Princeton, viii + 298. https: // doi. org / 10.5962 / bhl. title. 7234","Tortonese, E. (1965) Fauna D'Italia-Echinodermata. Edizioni Calderini, Bologna, 422 pp.","Marques, V. M. (1983) Peuplements benthiques de Acores, 1 - echinoderms. Arquivo do Museu Bocage, AII (I), 1 - 7.","Pereira, M. (1997) Checklist of the littoral echinoderms of the Azores. Acoreana, 8 (3), 331 - 337.","Maciel, P. C. & J. M. Goncalves (1998) Distribuic \" o dos ouricos-do-mar de espinhos curtos Sphaerechinus granularis na costa da ilha do Faial, Acores, no Ver \" o de 1996. In: III Simposio Fauna e Flora das Ilhas Atlanticas, 21 - 25 September, Universidade dos Acores, Ponta Delgada, pp. 182.","Morton, B., Britton, J. C. & Martins, A. F. M. (1998) Ecologia costeira dos Acores. Sociedade Afonso Chaves, Ponta Delgada, 249 pp.","Perez-Ruzafa, A., Entrambasaguas, L., Espejo, C., Marcos, C. & Bacallado, J. J. (2002) Fauna de equinodermos (Echinodermata) de los fondos rocosos infralitorales del archipielago de Salvajes (Oceano Atlantico). Revista de la Academia Canaria de Ciencias, 14 (3 - 4), 277 - 296.","Wirtz, P. & Debelius, H. (2003) Mediterranean and Atlantic invertebrate guide. ConchBooks, Hackenheim, 305 pp.","Cardigos, F., Colaco, A., Dando, P. R., Avila, S. P., Sarradin, P. - M., Tempera, F., Conceic \" o, P., Pascoal, A. & Santos, R. S. (2005) Shallow-water hydrothermal vent field fluids and communities of the D. Jo \" o de Castro Seamount (Azores). Chemical Geology, 224, 153 - 168. https: // doi. org / 10.1016 / j. chemgeo. 2005.07.019","Garcia-Diez, C., Porteiro, F. M., Meirinho, A., Cardigos, F. & Tempera, F. (2005) Taxonomic review of selected invertebrate groups collected during the Campaigns of the Prince Albert I of Monaco in the Azorean waters. Arquipelago. Life and Marine Sciences, 22 A, 35 - 59.","Mironov, A. N. (2006) Echinoids from seamounts of the north-eastern Atlantic, onshore / offshore gradients in species distribution. In: Mironov, A. N., Gebruk, A. V. & Southward, A. J. (Eds.), Biogeography of the North Atlantic Seamounts. KMK Scientific Press, Russian Academy of Sciences, P. P. Shirshov Institute of Oceanology, Moscow, pp. 96 - 133.","Schultz, H. (2006) Sea Urchins - a guide to worldwide shallow-water species. 3 rd Edition. Heinke & Peter Schultz Partner Scientific Publications, 484 pp.","Haddad Jr, V. & Barreiros, J. P. (2008) Dangerous Azorean Marine Animals: a field guide. Blu Edicies, Terceira, Acores, 60 pp.","Micael, J. & Costa A. C. (2010) Echinodermata. In: Borges, P. A. V., Costa, A., Cunha, R., Gabriel, R., Goncalves, V., Martins, A. F., Melo, I., Parente, M., Raposeiro, P., Rodrigues, P., Santos, R. S., Silva, L., Vieira, P. & Vieira, V. (Eds.), A list of the terrestrial and marine biota from the Azores. Principia, Oeiras, pp. 321 - 323.","Madeira, P., Kroh, A., Cordeiro, R., Meireles, R. & Avila, S. P. (2011) The fossil echinoids of Santa Maria Island, Azores (Northern Atlantic Ocean). Acta Geologica Polonica, 61 (3), 243 - 264.","Micael, J., Alves, M. J., Jones, M. B. & Costa, A. C. (2012) Diversity of shallow-water asteroids (Echinodermata) in the Azorean Archipelago. Marine Biodiversity Records, 5, e 49. https: // doi. org / 10.1017 / S 1755267211000534","Alves, F. M. A., Chicharro, L. M., Serr \" o, E. & Abreu, A. D. (2001) Algal cover and sea urchin spatial distribution at Madeira Island (NE Atlantic). Scientia Marina, 65, 383 - 392. https: // doi. org / 10.3989 / scimar. 2001.65 n 4383","Mortensen, T. (1927 b) Sur les echinides recueillis par l'expedition du \" Travailleur \" et du \" Talisman. \" Archives du Museum d'Histoire Naturelle, 2 (6), 21 - 34.","Koukouras, A., Sinis, A. I., Bobori, D., Kazantzidis, S. & Kitsos, M. - S. (2007) The echinoderm (Deuterostomia) fauna of the Aegean Sea, and comparison with those of the neighbouring seas. Journal of Biological Research, 7, 67 - 92.","Emlet, R. B. (1995) Developmental mode and species geographic range in regular sea urchins (Echinodermata: Echinoidea). Evolution, 49 (3), 476 - 489. https: // doi. org / 10.1111 / j. 1558 - 5646.1995. tb 02280. x","Koehler, R. (1921 b) Echinodermes. Faune de France. 1. Librairie de la Faculte des Sciences, Paris, 216 pp."]}

Madeira, Patrícia, Kroh, Andreas, Cordeiro, Ricardo, De, António M., Martins, Frias, Ávila, Sérgio P. (2019): The Echinoderm Fauna of the Azores (NE Atlantic Ocean). Zootaxa 4639 (1): 1-231, DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.4639.1

Tripneustes gratilla gratilla (Linnaeus, 1758) Material studied. WUSL /ER/276 (wet, denuded) from Silavathurai; WUSL /ER/277 (wet, with spines) and WUSL /ER/278 (wet, denuded) from Hiriketiya; WUSL /ER/279 (dry, denuded) from Polhena; WUSL /ER/280 (dry, denuded) from Hikkaduwa; WUSL /ER/281 (dry, denuded) from Ahangama. Literature records for Sri Lanka. Walter (1885), Döderlein (1888), Clark (1915), Koehler (1927), Fernando (2006), Jayakody (2012). Distribution in Sri Lanka. Southern, northern, and northwestern coasts of Sri Lanka. Recorded depth range in Sri Lanka. 0.1– 12 m (present study). Habitat. Mainly found on sandy bottoms among seagrass beds. Observed occurrence in this study. Northern (Silavathurai), southern (Polhena, Hikkaduwa, Hiriketiya, Kirinda, Godawaya, Ahangama), and western coasts (Negombo) of Sri Lanka. Remarks. Tripneustes gratilla gratilla is one of the most common shallow water species found among the seagrass beds of the southern coast of Sri Lanka. The colour of the primary spines varies from orange to white., Published as part of Arachchige, Gayashan M., Jayakody, Sevvandi, Mooi, Rich & Kroh, Andreas, 2019, An annotated species list of regular echinoids from Sri Lanka with notes on some rarely seen temnopleurids, pp. 35-57 in Zootaxa 4571 (1) on page 48, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4571.1.3, http://zenodo.org/record/2605940, {"references":["Walter, A. (1885) Ceylons Echinodermen. Jenaische Zeitschrift fur Naturwissenschaft Herausgegeben von der Medicinisch- Naturwissenschaftlichen Gesellschaft zu Jena, 18, 365 - 384.","Doderlein, L. (1888) Echinodermen von Ceylon. Bericht uber die von den Herren D res Sarasin gesammelten Asteroidea, Ophiuroidea und Echinoidea. Zoologische Jahrbucher, Abteilung fur Systematik, Geographie und Biologie der Tiere, 3, 821 - 846. https: // doi. org / 10.5962 / bhl. part. 1933","Clark, H. L. (1915) The echinoderms of Ceylon other than holothurians. Spolia Zeylanica, 10, 83 - 102.","Koehler, R. (1927) Echinoderma of the Indian Museum 10. An account of the Echinoidea. 3. Echinides reguliers. Trustees of the Indian Museum, Calcutta, 158 pp.","Fernando, M. (2006) Coral associated invertebrates: An overview of the current taxonomic status. In: Bambaradeniya, C. N. B. (Ed.), The Fauna of Sri Lanka. Section 3. Status of Marine Fauna in Sri Lanka. IUCN-The World Conservation Union, Gland and Cambridge, pp. 259 - 273.","Jayakody, S. (2012) Provisional checklist of sea urchins (Echinodermata: Echinoidea) of Sri Lanka. In: Weerakoon, D. K. & Wijesundara, S. (Eds.), The National Red List 2012 of Sri Lanka; Conservation Status of the Fauna and Flora. Ministry of Environment, Colombo, Sri Lanka, pp. 370 - 372."]}

Pseudoboletia maculata Troschel, 1869 Material studied. WUSL /ER/271 (dry, with spines) from Polhena. Literature records for Sri Lanka. Herdman et al. (1904), Clark (1915), Fernando (2006), Jayakody (2012). Distribution in Sri Lanka. Northern and southern coasts of Sri Lanka. Recorded depth range in Sri Lanka. 13 m (previous records). Habitat. Not recorded. Observed occurrence in this study. None. Remarks. P. maculata differs from P. indiana because the former has dark spots on the test, but the latter is uniform in colour and lacks spots. One denuded specimen is housed at the DAF (Polhena, 1–5 m)., Published as part of Arachchige, Gayashan M., Jayakody, Sevvandi, Mooi, Rich & Kroh, Andreas, 2019, An annotated species list of regular echinoids from Sri Lanka with notes on some rarely seen temnopleurids, pp. 35-57 in Zootaxa 4571 (1) on pages 43-48, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4571.1.3, http://zenodo.org/record/2605940, {"references":["Herdman, W. A., Herdman, J. B. & Bell, F. J. (1904) Report on the Echinoderma collected by Professor Herdman, at Ceylon, in 1902. In: Herdman, W. A. (Ed.), Report to the government of Ceylon on the pearl oyster fisheries of the Gulf of Mannar. The Royal Society, London, pp. 137 - 150.","Clark, H. L. (1915) The echinoderms of Ceylon other than holothurians. Spolia Zeylanica, 10, 83 - 102.","Fernando, M. (2006) Coral associated invertebrates: An overview of the current taxonomic status. In: Bambaradeniya, C. N. B. (Ed.), The Fauna of Sri Lanka. Section 3. Status of Marine Fauna in Sri Lanka. IUCN-The World Conservation Union, Gland and Cambridge, pp. 259 - 273.","Jayakody, S. (2012) Provisional checklist of sea urchins (Echinodermata: Echinoidea) of Sri Lanka. In: Weerakoon, D. K. & Wijesundara, S. (Eds.), The National Red List 2012 of Sri Lanka; Conservation Status of the Fauna and Flora. Ministry of Environment, Colombo, Sri Lanka, pp. 370 - 372."]}

Toxopneustes pileolus (Lamarck, 1816) Material studied. WUSL /ER/273 (wet, with spines) from Silavathurai and WUSL /ER/274 (dry, with spines) from Polhena; WUSL /ER/275 (dry, denuded) from Negombo. Literature records for Sri Lanka. Walter (1885), Döderlein (1888), Herdman et al. (1904), Clark (1915), Koehler (1927), Fernando (2006), Jayakody (2012). Distribution in Sri Lanka. Northern, southern, and western coasts of Sri Lanka. Recorded depth range in Sri Lanka. 0.5– 12 m (present study), 13–48 m (previous records). Habitat. Rocky reef areas, seagrass beds. Observed occurrence in this study. Northern (Silavathurai), southern (Polhena, Hikkaduwa, Hiriketiya, Ahangama), and western coasts (Negombo) of Sri Lanka. Remarks. When the animal is alive, the test takes on the appearance of a flower garden because of the dense covering of large, bright reddish and white, three-jawed globiferous pedicellariae. In contrast, the denuded test has distinct greenish to purplish bands arranged concentrically. This species can be distinguished from the other two toxopneustid species recorded in this study, Pseudoboletia maculata and Tripneustes gratilla gratilla, because the former has clear arcs of three pore pairs each in the ambulacra, and the latter has denser tuberculation and lacks the green banding on the denuded test (in addition, its test is much higher and shows three discrete vertical series of pore pairs in each ambulacral column rather than a broad band of pores)., Published as part of Arachchige, Gayashan M., Jayakody, Sevvandi, Mooi, Rich & Kroh, Andreas, 2019, An annotated species list of regular echinoids from Sri Lanka with notes on some rarely seen temnopleurids, pp. 35-57 in Zootaxa 4571 (1) on page 48, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4571.1.3, http://zenodo.org/record/2605940, {"references":["Walter, A. (1885) Ceylons Echinodermen. Jenaische Zeitschrift fur Naturwissenschaft Herausgegeben von der Medicinisch- Naturwissenschaftlichen Gesellschaft zu Jena, 18, 365 - 384.","Doderlein, L. (1888) Echinodermen von Ceylon. Bericht uber die von den Herren D res Sarasin gesammelten Asteroidea, Ophiuroidea und Echinoidea. Zoologische Jahrbucher, Abteilung fur Systematik, Geographie und Biologie der Tiere, 3, 821 - 846. https: // doi. org / 10.5962 / bhl. part. 1933","Herdman, W. A., Herdman, J. B. & Bell, F. J. (1904) Report on the Echinoderma collected by Professor Herdman, at Ceylon, in 1902. In: Herdman, W. A. (Ed.), Report to the government of Ceylon on the pearl oyster fisheries of the Gulf of Mannar. The Royal Society, London, pp. 137 - 150.","Clark, H. L. (1915) The echinoderms of Ceylon other than holothurians. Spolia Zeylanica, 10, 83 - 102.","Koehler, R. (1927) Echinoderma of the Indian Museum 10. An account of the Echinoidea. 3. Echinides reguliers. Trustees of the Indian Museum, Calcutta, 158 pp.","Fernando, M. (2006) Coral associated invertebrates: An overview of the current taxonomic status. In: Bambaradeniya, C. N. B. (Ed.), The Fauna of Sri Lanka. Section 3. Status of Marine Fauna in Sri Lanka. IUCN-The World Conservation Union, Gland and Cambridge, pp. 259 - 273.","Jayakody, S. (2012) Provisional checklist of sea urchins (Echinodermata: Echinoidea) of Sri Lanka. In: Weerakoon, D. K. & Wijesundara, S. (Eds.), The National Red List 2012 of Sri Lanka; Conservation Status of the Fauna and Flora. Ministry of Environment, Colombo, Sri Lanka, pp. 370 - 372."]}

Although a comprehensive guide to the South African echinoid fauna was published as recently as 2017, four notable additions to the fauna have emerged since that time and are reported on here. The first South African records for Histocidarispurpurata (Thomson, 1872), Echinothrixdiadema (Linnaeus, 1758), Microcyphusrousseaui L. Agassiz, in Agassiz and Desor 1846, and Pseudoboletiamaculata Troschel, 1869 are presented. All four species have previously been recorded from the Atlantic and/or Indian Oceans and their ranges are thus extended southwards here. These additions increase the total number of echinoid species known from South Africa to 74.

Sea urchins of the genus Tripneustes are among the most abundant and ecologically important pan-tropical marine invertebrates. Recognized as potent ecosystem engineers due to their intense grazing of macroalgae and sea grass and highly valued for their gonads, wild populations of Tripneustes are commercially exploited for fisheries and aquaculture. Recently, a new species, Tripneustes kermadecensis (Bronstein et al. 2017), was described from the southern Pacific Ocean, off the Kermadec Islands, near the tropical/sub-tropical transition zone. Here, we explore the range of Tripneustes and, in particular, T. kermadecensis by morphological and genetic tools to determine whether it also occurs in Australia. We report, for the first time, the presence of a second Tripneustes species, T. kermadecensis, from Australia. We show that T. kermadecensis is in fact highly abundant throughout most of sub-tropical eastern Australia, where it occurs in association with coral and temperate reefs and has been recognized for decades as the ‘lamington sea urchin’. As commercial exploitation and stock-release programs of Tripneustes are rapidly expanding, and as global warming causes tropicalization of eastern Australia, driving the southern expansion of its congener T. gratilla, we call for re-evaluation of the conservation vulnerability of T. kermadecensis along the Australian continent and action by the aquaculture industry to genetically confirm the species identity of stocks in their facilities.

Novel COI and bindin sequences of the Red Sea collector echinoid Tripneustes gratilla elatensis are used to show that (1) discordance between mitochondrial and nuclear loci exists in this echinoid genus, (2) Tripneustes gratilla as currently defined possibly comprises a complex of cryptic species, and (3) Red Sea Tripneustes form a genetically distinct clade in the bindin tree, which diverged from other Tripneustes clades at least 2–4 million years ago. Morphological reassessment of T. gratilla elatensis shows perfect congruence between identification based on skeletal features and genetic data based on a nuclear marker sequence. Hence the Red Sea Tripneustes subspecies established by Dafni in 1983 is a distinct biological unit. All T. g. elatensis samples analyzed are highly similar to or share mtDNA haplotypes with Philippine T. g. gratilla, as do representatives from other edge-of-range occurrences. This lack of genetic structure in Indo-Pacific Tripneustes is interpreted as a result of wide-spread mitochondrial introgression. New fossil specimens from the Red Sea area confirm the sympatric occurrence of T. g. elatensis and T. g. gratilla in the northern Red Sea during Late Pleistocene, identifying a possible timing for the introgression. In addition, present-day distribution shows a contact zone in the Southern Red Sea (in the Dahlak Archipelago). T. g. elatensis, is yet another example of a Red Sea taxon historically identified as conspecific with its Indo-Pacific relatives, but which turned out to be a morphologically and genetically distinct endemic taxon, suggesting that the level of endemism in the Red Sea may still be underestimated.

The class Echinoidea contains among the best-known echinoderms. The group has left the most complete fossil record of this phylum, and contains about 1000 living species, of which 51 are recorded along the Brazilian coast. Although the first record of echinoids in Brazil was made 369 years ago, the knowledge of this fauna remains quite unsatisfactory from a taxonomic and ecological point of view, particularly in the north and northeastern regions of the country. This study provides the first annotated list of echinoids from northeastern Brazil. The studied material largely belongs to collections of the Federal University of Paraíba (CIPY), Federal University of Sergipe (LABIMAR-UFS), Federal University of Bahia (MZUFBA), University of São Paulo (MZUSP), and National Museum of the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (MNRJ). Thirty-two species from 29 genera, 18 families, and 10 orders were identified. Descriptions of species are provided. Highest diversities of Echinoidea were encountered for the states of Bahia (19 spp.), Alagoas (11 spp.), Paraíba (10 spp.), Ceará (7 spp.), Rio Grande do Norte (7 spp.), and Pernambuco (6 spp.). On the basis of the data analysed, Maranhão (2 spp.), Piauí (2 spp.), and Sergipe (3 spp.) have the lowest diversity. Sandy substrates and depths below 10 m were the least sampled areas over the continental shelf. Although the studied species are common, some taxonomic problems were encountered and discussed. We also provide ecological information and comments on status of the species from the studied region. As a result of this inventory, we were able to provide the first assessment of the echinoid fauna of northeastern Brazil.

Lytechinus variegatus (Lamarck, 1816) Figures 7 A–O, 18 D, 19 C–D Cidaris variegata Leske, 1778: 85. Echinus variegatus Lamarck, 1816: 48. Psammechinus variegatus L. Agassiz & Desor, 1846: 368. Toxopneustes variegatus A. Agassiz, 1872: 168.― Rathbun, 1879: 144. Lytechinus variegatus A. Agassiz, 1863: 24.― H.L. Clark, 1925: 120 –121.― Krau, 1950: 358.– Bernasconi, 1955: 60 –61, pl. 2, figs 2, 6.– Tommasi, 1957: 21, 25, 26, figs 12–15; pl. 1, fig. 5; 1964: 92; 1966a: 14–15; 1966b: 254–256; 1967: 50; 1972: 26, figs 51–52.― Brito, 1960b: 3, pl. 1a, 2c, f; 1962: 5; 1968: 23, pl. 10, fig. 4.― Lima-Verde, 1968: 155; 1969: 10.― Tommasi & Aron, 1987: 3; 1988: 2.― Manso, 1989: 357.― Castro et al., 1995: 476.― Magalhães et al., 2005: 63.– Martins & Martins de Queiroz, 2006: 208.– Ventura et al., 2007a: 251; 2007b: 279, tab. 11.2, 280, fig. 11.1a, 290, anexo 11.1; 2014: 65, with one figure.– Gondim et al., 2008: 155; 2014a: 99.– Manso et al., 2008: 183, figs 4a–b.– Xavier, 2010: 75.– Miranda et al., 2012: 142, fig. 4d.– Alitto et al., 2016: 10. Lytechinus variegatus atlanticus H.L. Clark, 1942: 380. Litechinus variegatus Alves & Cerqueira, 2000. 547. Lytechinus variegatus variegatus Tommasi, 1959: 602, 603.― Fernandes et al., 2002: 422.― Oliveira et al., 2010: 11, fig. 4c. Material examined. Paraíba: 1 spm, Cabo Branco Beach, João Pessoa, 25.IX.2007 [UFPB/ECH.1158]; 1 spm, Cabo Branco Beach, 21.III.2000 [UFPB/ECH.1321]; 1 spm, Cabo Branco Beach, 20.XI.1980 [UFPB/ECH.1364]; 1 spm, Galé Reef, Pitimbú, 12.XII.2008 [UFPB/ECH.1461]; 2 spms, Cabo Branco Beach, 29.V.2009 [UFPB/ ECH.1552]; 1 spm, 7°07′00″S 34°43′54″W, 14.III.2006 [UFPB/ECH.1718]; 1 spm, Bessa Beach, João Pessoa, 20.VIII.2005 [UFPB/ECH.1719]; 1 spm, 6°55′S 34°47′W, 03.VII.2006, 10 m [UFPB/ECH.574]; 1 spm, Ponta do Seixas, João Pessoa, 12. IV.2006 [UFPB/ECH.1811]; Project Algas—5 spms, 6°50′S 34°50′W, st. 66, 10 m 12.III.1981 [UFPB/ECH.1363]; 1 spm, 6°46′S 34°53′W, st. 67, 10 m, 13.III.1981 [UFPB/ECH.1631]; 2 spms, 7°10′S 34°38′W, st. 37, 35 m, 26.III.1981 [UFPB/ECH.1639]; 3 spms, 7°01′S 34°41′W, st. 49, 16 m, 06.II.1981 [UFPB/ECH.1644]; 1 spm, 7°01′S 34°47′05″W, st. 50, 11 m, 05.II.1981 [UFPB/ECH.1703]; 1 spm, 7°01′S 34°41′05″W, st. 48, 24 m, 13.II.1981 [UFPB/ECH.1704]; 1 spm, 7°28′S 34°40′W, st. 10, 14 m, 05.V.1981 [UFPB/ ECH.1705]; 5 spms, 6°29′S 34°57′W, st. 90, 12 m, 10.VI.1981 [UFPB/ECH.1706]; 4 spms, 6°33′S 34°57′W, st. 83, 12 m, 03.VI.1981 [UFPB/ECH.1707]; 3 spms, 7°10′S 34°38′W, st. 37, 25 m, 26.III.1981 [UFPB/ECH.1708]; 1 spm, 6°55′S 34°46′05″W, st. 57, 18 m, 06.II.1981 [UFPB/ECH.1709]; 1 spm, 7°10′S 34°45′W, st. 35, 10 m, 26.III.1981 [UFPB/ECH.1710]; 1 spm, 7°15′05″S 34°42′W, st. 27, 16 m, 13. IV.1981 [UFPB/ECH.1711]; 2 spms, 6°55′S 34°48′W, st. 58, 12 m, 04.II.1981 [UFPB/ECH.1712]; 1 spm, 6°58′S 34°46′05″W, st. 51, 14 m, 05.II.1981 [UFPB/ECH.1713]; 2 spms, 7°34′S 34°42′W, st. 2, 20 m, 21. IV.1981 [UFPB/ECH.1714]; 1 spm, 7°13′S 34°42′W, st. 33, 20 m, 27.III.1981 [UFPB/ECH.1715]; 1 spm, 6°36′S 34°43′W, st. 79, 22 m, 29.V.1981 [UFPB/ECH.1717]; 1 spm, 6°50′S 34°50′W, st. 66, 10 m, 12.III.1981 [UFPB/ECH.1760]; 1 spm, 6°52′S 34°48′W, st. 59, 10 m, 04.II.1981 [UFPB/ECH.1776]; 1 spm, 7°13′S 34°42′W, st. 33, 20 m, 27.III.1981 [UFPB/ECH.1812]. Pernambuco: 4 spms, Itaparica Island, V.1980 [UFPB/ECH.24]. Alagoas: 3 spms, Paripueira Beach, 01.II.1983 [UFPB/ECH.17]; 1 spm, Mangue Beach, 03.II.1983 [UFPB/ECH.18]; 3 spms, Ponta Verde Reef, Maceió, 26.VI.2007 [UFSITAB- 78]. Bahia: 7 spms, Ponta da Coroa Vermelha, Santa Cruz da Cabrália, 15.X.1982 [UFPB/ECH.07]; 4 spms, coral reef between Cumuruxatiba and Imbaçuaba Beach, Prado, 28.XI.1982 [UFPB/ECH.14]; 2 spms, Itaparica Beach, Salvador, 22.XII.1984 [UFPB/ECH.19]; 4 spms, Coroa Vermelha, Santa Cruz da Cabrália, 20.XII.1984 [UFPB/ ECH.20]; 3 spms, Imbaçuaba, Prado, 14.X.1982 [UFPB/ECH.32]; 4 spms, Cabuçu Beach, Santo Amaro, 19.IX.1982 [UFPB/ECH.1720]; 1 spm, Itaparica Beach, Salvador, 22.XII.1984 [UFPB/ECH.1721]; 3 spms, Maré Island, Salvador, 01.II.2002 [UFSITAB-119]; 1 spm, Santa Cruz da Cabrália, 6–7 m [MZUSP, without voucher]. Description. Test hemispherical, slightly pentagonal with flat oral side (TD = 4.4 to 81.7 mm; TH = 1.8 to 38.6 mm) (Fig. 7A, B, I, J). Apical system hemicyclic, ocular plates I and V insert (Fig. 7L). Genital plates with two or three tubercles (Fig. 7L). Ocular plates with five to eight small tubercles (Fig. 7L). Ambulacra broad at ambitus, almost as broad as interambulacra (Fig. 7I, J). Ambulacral plate trigeminate (echinoid type), with one primary tubercle and three pairs of pores arranged in vertical row (Fig. 7N). Interambulacral plate with one to five primary tubercles (Fig. 7O); number of tubercles tend to increase toward oral region. Primary spines short, with tapering tips, and arranged into clear vertical rows in ambulacra and interambulacra. Secondary spines smaller and narrower than primary spines. Tubercles non-crenulate and non-perforate (Fig. 7I, J, N, O). Peristomial membrane densely covered by peristomial plates (Fig. 7N), with many ophicephalous and triphyllous pedicellariae. Pedicellariae. Globiferous pedicellariae with a long stalk, without a neck, and with many C-shaped and dumbbell-shaped spicules. Valves long, with a long end tooth (Fig. 7C, D). White ophicephalous pedicellariae over entire test (Fig. 7A). Ophicephalous pedicellariae with long stalk and neck, with a small number of C-shaped and dumbbell-shaped spicules (Fig. 7H). Valves short, oval, with margin denticulate and slightly serrate (Fig. 7E). Tridentate pedicellariae short, with a long neck and C-shaped and dumbbell-shaped spicules. Valves long and narrow, with margin slightly denticulate, these teeth being short, the longest occurring near base of the blade (Fig. 7E). Triphyllous pedicellariae with large C-shaped spicules (Fig. 7H) and short, broad, perforated blade, perforations on external margin longer and narrower (Fig. 7G). Colour. Corona greenish, with white ambulacra and spines with purplish tips (Fig. 7A, B). Globiferous pedicellariae large, white, visible to the naked eye (Fig. 7A). Test and spines colour variable and used to identify subspecies of L. variegatus (Serafy 1973). Hendler et al. (1995) indicated that colour of the test and spines may vary within a single population. We did not observe this variation on populations from the NE Brazil. Distribution. Mexico, Gulf of Mexico, Cuba, Jamaica, Haiti, Belize, Guatemala, Honduras, Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico, Caribbean Sea, Costa Rica, Panama, Colombia, Venezuela, and Brazil (Alvarado et al. 2008; del Valle García et al. 2008; Kroh & Mooi 2016). In Brazil, from CE, PB, PE, AL, BA, RJ, SP, SC, RS, including Abrolhos and Fernando de Noronha Islands (Rathbun 1879; H.L. Clark 1925; Tommasi 1966a, 1972; Brito 1968; Lima-Verde 1969; Tommasi & Aron 1988; Manso 1989; Fernandes et al. 2002; Magalhães et al. 2005; Netto et al. 2005; Gondim et al. 2008; Lima & Fernandes 2009; Oliveira et al. 2010; Xavier 2010). Herein we establish a new record of L. variegatus for the State of Rio Grande do Norte. The species occurs from 0 to 250 m, being more common above depths of 50 m (Hendler et al. 1995). Remarks. Lytechinus is currently known from three fossil and eight living species, four of which come from the tropical West Atlantic (L. variegatus; L. callipeplus H.L. Clark, 1912; L. euerces H.L. Clark, 1912; and L. williamsi Chesher, 1968). Only L. variegatus and the subspecies L. variegatus carolinus A. Agassiz, 1863 are known from Brazilian waters. Lytechinus variegatus differs from L. callipeplus by having tridentate and triphyllous pedicellariae and by its peristomial membrane, which is covered by whitish plates. Lytechinus euerces differs from L. variegatus by having test and spines white, and short primary spines. Lytechinus williamsi differs from L. variegatus by having a beige test and large, purple globiferous pedicellariae. Mortensen (1943a) separated L. variegatus into allopatric subspecies. Tommasi (1966a) provided a taxonomic key for these subspecies and considered the peristomial membrane, spines, and test colour important characters. Serafy (1973) studied morphological variation in L. variegatus from the West Atlantic and concluded that three (L. variegatus atlanticus, L. variegatus carolinus, and L. variegatus variegatus) of the four subspecies proposed by Mortensen (1933) were valid, raising L. variegatus pallidus H.L. Clark, 1925 to species category. On the other hand, Hendler et al. (1995) highlighted the need for further studies to support validity of these subspecies. A study carried out by Zigler & Lessios (2004), showed that the L. variegatus variegatus mtDNA is distinct from that of L. variegatus carolinus from the North American seaboard and the Gulf of Mexico, whereas their bindins are very similar. Here, young and adult specimens of L. variegatus were examined, and only variation in the apical system arrangement was observed, being dicyclic in the young and hemicyclic in adults. Bernasconi (1955) examined specimens from São Sebastião (SP) and observed variations in the number of secondary tubercles in the interambulacral plates, which can reach up to 2–3 in the adapical series and 2 in the adradial series at the ambitus. Ecological notes. This species is preferentially found in calm waters, especially in banks of seagrass and on rocky and sandy substrates (del Valle García et al. 2005). According to Lessios (1998), L. variegatus is normally abundant in Thalassia beds in the Caribbean. Lima-Verde (1968) observed this species in calm waters with rocky or sandy substrates in the coastal areas of Ceará and Pernambuco, Brazil. Recently, this species was observed inhabiting hypersaline estuaries along the semiarid littoral of Rio Grande do Norte, being associated with sand-mud bottoms with a salinity of 42. In general, it is herbivorous (Lawrence 1975), but its food preference is probably conditioned by the defensive chemistry produced by certain species of algae (Souza et al. 2008). Inside its stomach, fragments of bryozoans, Foraminifera, diatoms, and several benthic marine invertebrates have been recorded (Tommasi 1964). Like other species of Toxopneustidae, L. variegatus shows a "covering behaviour" using fragments of shells, gravel, and algae (Hendler et al. 1995) (Fig. 19C). The same behavior was recorded for specimens from hypersaline habitats. Although there is much controversy about the meaning of this behaviour, it can provide protection against predators or physical factors such as light and temperature, thus preventing body dehydration (Verling et al. 2004). In some areas along northeastern Brazil, L. variegatus displays population outbreaks in shallow, warm waters. At the reefs of Tamandaré, located in the Environmental Protection Area known as the Coral Coast (State of Pernambuco), dense populations of this species are commonly observed during the dry period, between September and February. Martins et al. (2012a) documented the aquarium fishery of this species along the coast of Salvador (BA). It is also one of the most important prey of the king helmet, Cassis tuberosa, in Brazilian waters (Dias et al. 2017) (Fig. 19D)., Published as part of Gondim, Anne Isabelley, Moura, Rafael Bendayan De, Christoffersen, Martin Lindsey & Dias, Thelma Lúcia Pereira, 2018, Taxonomic guide and historical review of echinoids (Echinodermata: Echinoidea) from northeastern Brazil, pp. 1-72 in Zootaxa 4529 (1) on pages 24-25, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4529.1.1, http://zenodo.org/record/2612564, {"references":["Lamarck, J. B. (1816) Histoire Naturelle des Animaux sans Vertebres, presentant les caracteres generaux et particuliers de ces animaux, leur distribution, leur classes, leurs familles, leurs generes, et le citation des principales especes qui s'y rapportent; precedee d'une Introduction offrant la Determination des caracteres essentiells de l'animal, sa distinction du vegetal et des autres corps naturels, enfin, l'Exposition des Principes fondamentaux de la Zoologie. Tome Troisieme. Verdiere, Paris, 586 pp.","Leske, N. G. (1778) Iacobi Theodori Klein naturalis dispositio echinodermatum. Accesserunt lucubratiuncula de aculeis echinorum marinorum et spicilegium de belemnitis. Edita et descriptionibus novisque inventis et synonymis auctorem aucta. Officina Gleditschiana, Lipsiae, 278 pp.","Agassiz, L. & Desor, P. J. E. (1846) Catalogue raisonne des familles, des genres, et des especes de la classe des echinodermes. Annales des Sciences Naturelles, Troisieme Serie, Zoologie, 6, 305 - 374. Available from: http: // www. biodiversitylibrary. org / item / 47986 page / 311 / mode / 1 up (accessed 5 March 2017)","Agassiz, A. (1872) Revision of the Echini. Illustrated catalogue of the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard College, 7 (3), 379 - 628.","Rathbun, R. (1879) A list of the Brazilian echinoderms, with notes on their distribution, etc. Transactions of the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences, 5, 139 - 151.","Agassiz, A. (1863) List of the echinoderms sent to different institutions in exchange for other specimens, with annotations. Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard College, 1, 17 - 28.","Clark, H. L. (1925) A catalogue of the recent sea-urchins (Echinoidea) in the Collection of the British Museum. Trustees of the British Museum, London. The Oxford University Press, London, 250 pp.","Krau, L. (1950) Observacoes sobre os Equinodermas da Baia da Guanabara. Memorias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, 48, 357 - 362. https: // doi. org / 10.1590 / S 0074 - 02761950000100013","Bernasconi, I. (1955) Equinoideos y Asteroideos de la Coleccion del Instituto Oceanografico de la Univerdidad de San Pablo. Primera contribucion. Boletim do Instituto Oceanografico, 6 (1 - 2), 51 - 57. https: // doi. org / 10.1590 / S 0373 - 55241955000100002","Tommasi, L. R. (1957) Os Equinodermos do litoral de Sao Paulo. I. Echinoidea, Crinoidea e Holothuroidea do bentos costeiro. Contribuicoes Avulsas do Instituto Oceanografico, Oceanografia Biologica, 13 (2), 19 - 44.","Brito, I. M. (1960 b) Os equinoides regulares do litoral do Rio de Janeiro. Universidade do Brasil, Faculdade Nacional de Filosofia, Centro de Estudos Zoologicos, 4, 1 - 8.","Lima-Verde, J. S. (1968) Notas sobre a familia Toxopneustidae no nordeste brasileiro (Echinodermata: Echinoidea). Arquivos da Estacao de Biologia Marinha da Universidade Federal do Ceara, 8 (2), 155 - 156.","Tommasi, L. R. & Aron, M. A. (1987) Equinodermos dos bancos submarinos da cadeia de montanhas Vitoria-Trindade. Relatorios Internos do Instituto Oceanografico, Universidade de Sao Paulo, 18, 1 - 9.","Manso, C. L. C. (1989) Os Echinodermata da plataforma continental interna entre Cabo Frio e Saquarema, Rio de Janeiro, Brasil. Revista Brasileira de Biologia, 49 (2), 355 - 359.","Castro, C. B., Echeverria, C. A., Pires, D. O., Mascarenhas, B. J. A. & Freitas, S. G. (1995) Distribuicao de Cnidaria e Echinodermata no infralitoral de costoes rochosos de Arraial do Cabo, Rio de Janeiro. Revista Brasileira de Biologia, 55 (3), 471 - 480.","Magalhaes, W. F., Martins, L. R. & Alves, O. F. S. (2005) Inventario dos Echinodermata do Estado da Bahia. Brazilian Journal of Aquatic Science and Technology, 40, 375 - 381. https: // doi. org / 10.14210 / bjast. v 9 n 1. p 61 - 65","Martins, I. X. & Martins de Queiroz, A. C. (2006) Echinodermos do litoral do Estado do Ceara. In: Matthews-Cascon, H. & Lotufo, T. M. C. (Eds.), Biota Marinha da Costa Oeste do Ceara. Ministerio do Meio Ambiente, Brasilia, pp. 199 - 220.","Ventura, C. R. R., Verissimo, I., Nobre, C. C. & Zama, P. C. (2007 a). Filo Echinodermata. In: Lavrado, H. P. & Viana, M. S. (Eds.), Atlas de Invertebrados Marinhos da regiao central da Zona Economica Exclusiva brasileira. Parte 1. Serie Livros 25. Museu Nacional, Rio de Janeiro, pp. 217 - 258.","Gondim, A. I., Lacouth, P., Alonso, C. & Manso, C. L. C. (2008) Echinodermata da praia do Cabo Branco, Joao Pessoa, Paraiba, Brasil. Biota Neotropica, 8 (2), 151 - 159. https: // doi. org / 10.1590 / S 1676 - 06032008000200016","Manso, C. L. C., Alves, O. F. S. & Martins, L. R. (2008) Echinodermata da Baia de Todos os Santos e da Baia de Aratu (Bahia, Brasil). Biota Neotropica, 8 (3), 179 - 196. https: // doi. org / 10.1590 / S 1676 - 06032008000300017","Xavier, L. A. R. (2010) Inventario dos Equinodermos do Estado de Santa Catarina, Brasil. Brazilian Journal of Aquatic Science and Technology, 14 (2), 73 - 78. https: // doi. org / 10.14210 / bjast. v 14 n 2. p 73 - 78","Miranda, A. L. S., Lima, M. L. F., Sovierzoski, H. H. & Correia, M. D. (2012) Inventory of the Echinodermata collection from the Universidade Federal de Alagoas. Biota Neotropica, 12 (2), 135 - 146. Available from: http: // www. biotaneotropica. org. br / v 12 n 2 / en / abstract? inventory + bn 00812022012 (accessed 1 Agust 2012)","Alitto, R. A. S., Bueno, M. L., Domenico, M. D. & Borges, M. (2016) Annotated checklist of Echinoderms from Araca Bay, Southeastern Brazil. Check List, 12 (1), 1 - 15. https: // doi. org / 10.15560 / 12.1.1836","Clark, H. L. (1942) The echinoderm fauna of Bermuda. Bulletin of The Museum of Comparative Zoology, 89, 367 - 391. Available from: http: // www. biodiversitylibrary. org / page / 2792408 page / 484 / mode / 1 up (accessed 17 July 2017)","Alves, O. F. S. & Cerqueira, W. R. P. (2000) Echinodermata das praias de Salvador (Bahia, Brasil). Revista Brasileira de Zoologia, 17 (2), 543 - 553. https: // doi. org / 10.1590 / S 0101 - 81752000000200024","Tommasi, L. R. (1959) Equinodermas do Estado do Rio de Janeiro. I-Crinoidea, Asteroidea, Echinoidea e Holothuroidea da regiao compreendida entre o Cabo dos Buzios e Cabo Frio. Anais da Academia Brasileira de Ciencias, 31 (4), 601 - 604.","Fernandes, M. L. B., Tommasi, L. R. & Lima, E. J. B. (2002) Filo Echinodermata de Pernambuco. In: Tabarelli, M. & Silva, J. M. C. (Eds.), Diagnostico da Biodiversidade de Pernambuco. Vol. 2. Massangana, Recife, pp. 405 - 427.","Oliveira, J. P., Oliveira, J. & Manso, C. L. C. (2010) Inventario da colecao de equinodermos do LABIMAR, Campus Prof °. Alberto Carvalho, Universidade Federal de Sergipe. Scientia Plena, 6 (12), 1 - 14.","Mironov, A. N. (2006) Echinoids from seamounts of the north-eastern Atlantic; onshore-offshore gradients in species distribution. In: Mironov, A. N., Gebruk, A. V. & Southward, A. J. (Eds.), Biogeography of the North Atlantic seamounts. KMK Science Press Ltd., Moscow, pp. 96 - 133.","Mironov, A. N. (1981) Deep sea echinoids of the genus Plesiodiadema (Echinoidea, Aspidodiadematidae). Trudy Instituta Oceanologii, 115, 174 - 182.","Serafy, D. K. (1973) Variation in the polytypic sea urchin Lytechinus variegatus (Lamarck, 1816) in the western Atlantic (Echinodermata: Echinoidea). Bulletin of Marine Science, 23, 525 - 534.","Hendler, G., Miller, J., Pawson, D. & Porter, K. (1995) Sea Stars, Sea Urchins, and Allies. Echinoderms of Florida and the Caribbean. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, 390 pp.","Alvarado, J. J., Solis-Marin, F. A. & Ahearn, C. (2008) Equinodermos (Echinodermata) del Caribe Centroamericano. Revista de Biologia Tropical, 56 (Supplement 3), 37 - 55.","del Valle Garcia, R., Abreu Perez, M., Rodriguez, R., Solis-Marin, F. A., Laguarda-Figueras, A. & Duran Gonzalez, A. de la L. (2008) Equinodermos (Echinodermata) del occidente del Archipielago Sabana-Camaguey, Cuba. Revista de Biologia Tropical, 56 (Supplement 3), 19 - 35.","Kroh, A. & Mooi, R. (2016) World Echinoidea Database. Available from: http: // www. marinespecies. org / echinoidea (accessed 3 September 2016)","Tommasi, L. R. (1966 a) Lista dos Equinoides recentes do Brasil. Contribuicoes do Instituto Oceanografico, Serie Oceanografia Biologica, 11, 1 - 50.","Tommasi, L. R. (1972) Equinodermes da regiao entre o Amapa (Brasil) e a Florida (E. U. A.). II. Echinozoa. Boletim do Instituto Oceanografico, Sao Paulo, 21, 15 - 67. https: // doi. org / 10.1590 / S 0373 - 55241972000100002","Brito, I. M. (1968) Asteroides e Equinoides do Estado da Guanabara e Adjacencias. Boletim do Museu Nacional, 260, 1 - 51.","Lima-Verde, J. S. (1969) Primeira contribuicao ao inventario dos Echinodermas do nordeste Brasileiro. Arquivos de Ciencias do Mar, 9 (1), 9 - 13.","Tommasi, L. R. & Aron, M. A. (1988) Equinodermes da plataforma continental do Sudeste do estado da Bahia. Relatorios Internos do Instituto Oceanografico, Universidade de Sao Paulo, 19, 1 - 6.","Netto, L. F., Hadel, V. F. & Tiago, C. G. (2005) Echinodermata from Sao Sebastiao Channel (Sao Paulo, Brazil). Revista de Biologia Tropical, 53 (Supplement 3), 207 - 218.","Lima, E. J. B & Fernandes, M. L. B. (2009) Diversidade de equinodermos (Echinodermata) no Estado de Pernambuco (Brasil). Revista Brasileira de Zoociencias, 11 (1), 55 - 63. Available from: https: // zoociencias. ufjf. emnuvens. com. br / zoociencias / article / view / 448 (accessed 20 November 2016)","Clark, H. L. (1912) Hawaiian and other Pacific Echini. The Pedinidae, Phymosomatidae, Stomopneustidae, and Echinometridae. Memoirs of the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard College, 34 / 4, 205 - 383. Available from: http: // www. biodiversitylibrary. org / item / 16792 page / 3 / mode / 1 up (accessed 5 September 2016)","Chesher, R. H. (1968) Lytechinus williamsi, a new sea urchin from Panama. Breviora, Museum of Comparative Zoology, 305, 1 - 13.","Mortensen, T. (1943 a) A Monograph of the Echinoidea Part III, No. 2 Camarodonta 1. Orthopsidae, Glyphocyphidae, Temnopleuridae and Toxopneustidae. C. A. Reitzel, Copenhagen, 553 pp.","Mortensen, T. (1933) Papers from Dr. Th. Mortensen's Pacific Expedition, 191 - 1916. LXVI. The Echinoderms of St. Helena (other than crinoids). Videnskabelige Meddelelser fra den naturhistorisk Forening i KjObenhavn, 93, 40 - 472.","Zigler, K. R. & Lessios, H. A. (2004) Speciation on the coasts of the new world: phylogeography and the evolution of bindin in the sea urchin genus Lytechinus. Evolution, 58 (6), 1225 - 1241. https: // doi. org / 10.1111 / j. 0014 - 3820.2004. tb 01702. x","del Valle Garcia, R., Solis-Marin, F. A., Abreu Perez, M., Laguarda-Figueras, F. & Duran Gonzalez, A. de la L. (2005) Catalogo de los equinodermos (Echinodermata: Crinoidea, Echinoidea, Holothuroidea) neritico-betonico del Arquipielago Cubano. Revista de Biologia Tropical, 53 (Supplement 3), 9 - 28.","Lessios, H. A. (1998) Shallow water echinoids of Cayos Cochinos, Honduras. Revista de Biologia Tropical, 46 (Supplement 4), 95 - 101.","Lawrence, J. M. (1975) On the relationship between marine plants and sea urchins. Oceanography and Marine Biology: Annual Review, 132, 135 - 286.","Souza, C. F., Oliveira, A. S. & Pereira, R. C. (2008) Feeding preference of the sea urchin Lytechinus variegatus (Lamarck, 1816) on seaweeds. Brazilian Journal of Oceanography, 56 (3), 239 - 247. https: // doi. org / 10.1590 / S 1679 - 87592008000300008","Tommasi, L. R. (1964) Observacoes sobre equinoides do Brasil. Revista Brasileira de Biologia, 24 (1), 83 - 93.","Verling, E., Crook, A. C. & Barnes, D. K. A. (2004) The dynamics of covering behaviour in dominant echinoid populations from American and European West coasts. Marine Ecology, 25 (3), 191 - 206. https: // doi. org / 10.1111 / j. 1439 - 0485.2004.00025. x","Martins, L., Souto, C., Magalhaes, W. F., Alves, O. F. S., Rosa, I. L. & Sampaio, C. L. S. (2012 a) Echinoderm harvesting in Todosos-Santos Bay, Bahia State, Brazil: the aquarium trade. Sitientibus serie Ciencias Biologicas, 12 (1), 53 - 59.","Dias, T. L. P., Mota, E. L. S., Duarte, R. C. S. & Alves, R. R. N. (2017) What do we know about Cassis tuberosa (Mollusca: Cassidae), a heavily exploited marine gastropod? Ethnobiology and Conservation, 6, 16. https: // doi. org / 10.15451 / ec 2017 - 08 - 6.16 - 1 - 13"]}

The sea urchin Tripneustes gratilla (Toxopneustidae, Echinoids) is a source of protein for many islanders in the Indo-West Pacific. It was previously reported to occasionally cause ciguatera-like poisoning; however, the exact nature of the causative agent was not confirmed. In April and July 2015, ciguatera poisonings were reported following the consumption of T. gratilla in Anaho Bay (Nuku Hiva Island, Marquesas archipelago, French Polynesia). Patient symptomatology was recorded and sea urchin samples were collected from Anaho Bay in July 2015 and November 2016. Toxicity analysis using the neuroblastoma cell–based assay (CBA-N2a) detected the presence of ciguatoxins (CTXs) in T. gratilla samples. Gambierdiscus species were predominant in the benthic assemblages of Anaho Bay, and G. polynesiensis was highly prevalent in in vitro cultures according to qPCR results. Liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) analyses revealed that P-CTX-3B was the major ciguatoxin congener in toxic sea urchin samples, followed by 51-OH-P-CTX-3C, P-CTX-3C, P-CTX-4A, and P-CTX-4B. Between July 2015 and November 2016, the toxin content in T. gratilla decreased, but was consistently above the safety limit allowed for human consumption. This study provides evidence of CTX bioaccumulation in T. gratilla as a cause of ciguatera-like poisoning associated with a documented symptomatology.

The pan-tropical sea urchin Tripneustes gratilla is an ecologically and economically important shallow water algal grazer. The aquaculture of T. gratilla has spurred growing interest in the population biology of the species, and by extension the generation of more molecular resources. To this purpose, de novo transcriptomes of T. gratilla were generated for two adults, a male and a female, as well as for a cohort of approximately 1,000 plutei larvae. Gene expression profiles of three adult tissue samples were quantified and compared. These samples were of gonadal tissue, the neural ring, and pooled tube feet and pedicellariae. Levels of shared and different gene expression between sexes, as well as across functional categories of interest, including the immune system, toxins, genes involved in fertilization, and sensory genes are highlighted. Differences in expression of Sex determining Region Y-related High Mobility Group box groups and general isoform expression between the sexes is observed. Additionally an expansion of the tumor suppressor DMBT1 was observed in T. gratilla when compared to the annotated genome of the sea urchin Strongylocentrotus purpuratus. The draft transcriptome of T. gratilla is presented here in order to facilitate more genomic level analysis of de-novo sea urchin systems.

Tripneustes gratilla (Linnaeus, 1758) Fig. 51 A–C. Tripneustes gratilla: H.L. Clark, 1912: 286, 313–314; H.L. Clark, 1923: 387; H.L. Clark, 1925a: 124 –125; Mortensen, 1943a: 500 –508. Pls. XXXIII. Figs 1–3, Pls. XXXIV. Figs. 2–6, Pls. XXXV. Figs. 3–4, Pls. XXXVII. Figs. 1–2, 4–10, Pls. XXXVIII. Figs. 1–4, Pls LVI. Fig. 11; Clark & Courtman-Stock, 1976: 234; Richmond, 1997: 298; Samyn, 2003: 210, Fig. 4 G; Branch et al., 2010: 234, Fig. 105.5; Schultz, 2010: 275, Figs 527–533. Material examined. MBC-A 022253; A22254; A23084; MBC-A023324; MBC-A077884; A7015; MBC- A077883. Identification. Test small, hemispherical with circular outline. Spines short, thin. Denuded test creamish, pores lighter; primary spines variable in color, may be orange, purplish or whitish; secondaries white. Global maximum size. Maximum test diameter 145 mm. Global distribution. East and South coasts of South Africa, from central Japan to Australia and from Norfolk Islands to Hawaii; littoral to 75 m (H.L. Clark 1912; Schultz 2010). Taxonomic notes. T. gratilla differs from Toxopneustes pileolus by its naked, dark median zones and test color., Published as part of Filander, Zoleka & Griffiths, Charles, 2017, Illustrated guide to the echinoid (Echinodermata: Echinoidea) fauna of South Africa, pp. 1-72 in Zootaxa 4296 (1) on pages 46-47, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4296.1.1, http://zenodo.org/record/843325, {"references":["Linnaeus, C. (1758) Systema Naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Editio decima, reformata. Laurentius Salvius, Holmiae, 824 pp.","Clark, H. L. (1912) Hawaiian and other Pacific Echini. The Pedinidae, Phymosomatidae, Stomopneustidae, and Echinometridae.","Clark, H. L. (1923) The echinoderm fauna of South Africa. Annals of the South African Museum, 13 (7), 221 - 435.","Clark, H. L. (1925 a) A Catalogue of the Recent Sea-urchins (Echinoidea) in the Collection of the British Museum (Natural History). Trustees of the British Museum, London, 250 pp.","Mortensen, T. (1943 a). A Monograph of the Echinoidea. III. 2. Camarodonta. I. Orthopsidae, Glyphocyphidae, Temnopleuridae and Toxopneustidae. C. A. Reitzel, Copenhagen, 553 pp.","Clark, A. & Courtman-Stock, J. (1976) The Echinoderms of Southern Africa. Publication no. 766. British Museum of Natural History, London, 277 pp.","Richmond, M. D. (1997) A Guide to the Seashores of Eastern Africa and the Western Indian Ocean Islands. Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (SIDA) and University of Dar es Salaam, Dar es Salaam, 448 pp.","Branch, G. M., Griffiths, C. L., Branch, M. L. & Beckley, L. (2010) Two Oceans: a Guide to the Marine Life of southern Africa. Struik Nature, Cape Town, 456 pp.","Schultz, H. (2010) Sea-Urchins, a Guide to Worldwide Shallow Water Species. 3 rd Edition. Scientific Publication, Hemdingen, 484 pp."]}

* Toxopneustes pileolus (Lamarck, 1816) Fig. 50 A–C. Toxopneustes pileolus: Mortensen, 1904: 120 –121; Mortensen, 1943a: 472 –480. Pl. XXVI. Fig. 3, Pl. XXVII. Figs 1–4, Pl. XXVIII. Figs 1–2, Pl. XXIX. Figs 1–5, Pl. XXX. Fig. 1–4, Pl. XXXI. Fig. 9, Pl. XXXIII. Figs 5–6, Pl. LIV. Figs 1, 3–6, 8– 10, 13, 14, 15, 16, Pl. LV. 13; H.L. Clark, 1923: 386; H.L. Clark, 1925a: 123; Clark & Courtman-Stock, 1976: 234; Richmond, 1997: 298; Samyn, 2003: 210, Figs 4 F, F’; Branch et al., 2010: 234, Fig. 105.7; Schultz, 2010: 270, Figs 518– 522; Filander & Griffiths, 2014: 53. Pl. II, Fig. D. Material examined. SAMC-A28208. Identification. Test hemispherical, sunken towards peristome. Globiferous pedicellaria valves blossom, giving flower-like appearance. Distinguishable from other species in denuded test showing brownish, greenish or purplish radial stripes; specimen examined with purplish-banded spines, in other cases may be banded in greenish, whitish or reddish shades; periproctal plates white. Global maximum size. Maximum test diameter 135 mm. Global distribution. East coast of South Africa (Filander & Griffiths 2014); East Africa to Fiji Islands and New Caledonia, and from central Japan to Australia; from littoral zone to 90 m (Schultz 2010). Remarks. Test densely covered by flower-like pedicellariae, equipped with poisonous glands. A tropical reef species, commonly known as the flower urchin, which uses seaweed or shells to shelter itself from sun (Branch et al. 2010)., Published as part of Filander, Zoleka & Griffiths, Charles, 2017, Illustrated guide to the echinoid (Echinodermata: Echinoidea) fauna of South Africa, pp. 1-72 in Zootaxa 4296 (1) on pages 45-46, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4296.1.1, http://zenodo.org/record/843325, {"references":["Lamarck, J. B. (1816) Histoire Naturelle des Animaux sans Vertebres, presentant les caracteres generaux et particuliers de ces animaux, leur distribution, leur classes, leurs familles, leurs generes, et le citation des principales especes qui s'y rapportent; precedee d'une introduction offrant la d´etermination des caracteres essentiells de l'animal, sa distinction du vegetal et des autres corps naturels, enfin, l'exposition des principes fondamentaux de la Zoologie. Tome Troisieme. Verdiere, Paris, 586 pp.","Mortensen, T. (1904) The Danish Expedition to Siam 1899 - 1900. III. Echinoidea (1). Kongelige Danske Videnskabelige Selskabs, Skrifter, 7, 1 - 124.","Mortensen, T. (1943 a). A Monograph of the Echinoidea. III. 2. Camarodonta. I. Orthopsidae, Glyphocyphidae, Temnopleuridae and Toxopneustidae. C. A. Reitzel, Copenhagen, 553 pp.","Clark, H. L. (1923) The echinoderm fauna of South Africa. Annals of the South African Museum, 13 (7), 221 - 435.","Clark, H. L. (1925 a) A Catalogue of the Recent Sea-urchins (Echinoidea) in the Collection of the British Museum (Natural History). Trustees of the British Museum, London, 250 pp.","Clark, A. & Courtman-Stock, J. (1976) The Echinoderms of Southern Africa. Publication no. 766. British Museum of Natural History, London, 277 pp.","Richmond, M. D. (1997) A Guide to the Seashores of Eastern Africa and the Western Indian Ocean Islands. Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (SIDA) and University of Dar es Salaam, Dar es Salaam, 448 pp.","Branch, G. M., Griffiths, C. L., Branch, M. L. & Beckley, L. (2010) Two Oceans: a Guide to the Marine Life of southern Africa. Struik Nature, Cape Town, 456 pp.","Schultz, H. (2010) Sea-Urchins, a Guide to Worldwide Shallow Water Species. 3 rd Edition. Scientific Publication, Hemdingen, 484 pp.","Filander, Z. & Griffiths, C. L. (2014) Additions to and revision of the South African echinoid fauna (Echinodermata: Echinoidea). African Natural History, 10, 47 - 56."]}

Assembly of publically available next-generation sequence data facilitated the generation of three camarodont echinoid mitogenomes: two for the Green Urchin (Lytechinus variegatus) and one for the Red Urchin (Mesocentrotus franciscanus). The data generated are exploited in a phylogenomic analysis of the superfamily Odontophora, originally proposed for echinoids with tooth supports on the epiphyses of the jaw. The analysis highly supports this taxon and its current subdivision into three families: the Echinometridae, Toxopneustidae, and Strongylocentrotidae. The analysis furthermore implies that historical taxonomic issues between two members of the genus Strongylocentrotus (S. pallidus and S. droebachiensis) may have a genetic basis. The novel mitogenomes for the model species L. variegatus complements the draft genome available for this taxon, one of only three genome-enabled echinoid species. The assembly method applied herein, follows a divide-and-conquer approach that provides for reduced computational requirements and facilitates resolving assembly problems when processing ultra-high coverage next-generation sequence data.

The genus Pseudoboletia was recently reported off coast of Brazil (Trindade-Martin Vaz insular complex). This study reports the first record of this genus to southern of Brazil in Rio de Janeiro and Santa Catarina coasts. Morphological and molecular data showed that sea urchins from Brazil and São Tomé are the same species, genetically distinct of individuals from Indo-Pacific. However, taxonomic identity of Brazilian species remains as a challenge. Two hypotheses to explain the recent records of this species on Brazilian coast are discussed: a recent natural invasion by long-distance dispersal and a recent population expansion in the Brazilian coast after absence or low density period. Rev. Biol. Trop. 65(Suppl. 1): S299-S308. Epub 2017 November 01.

Family: Toxopneustidae Sphaerechinus granularis (Lamarck, 1816), Published as part of Despalatovi��, Marija, Cvitkovi��, Ivan & ��uljevi��, Ante, 2017, Checklist of the echinoderm fauna of the Adriatic Sea, pp. 101-116 in Zootaxa 4353 (1) on page 106, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4353.1.6, http://zenodo.org/record/1064560

The first recorded regular echinoid species from Sri Lanka, “Salmacis virgulatus” (now known as S. virgulata L. Agassiz in L. Agassiz & Desor, 1846), was listed by Agassiz & Desor (1846). Knowledge of Sri Lankan regular echinoids continued to advance until the end of the 19th century. However, there is a gap in knowledge between the mid-20th and the beginning of the 21st centuries due to a lack of systematic studies, with the exception of two checklists published by the IUCN Red List in 2006 and 2012. In the present study, we compiled a species list combining published data and new data based on fieldwork between 2013 and 2015. Echinoids were sampled by snorkelling, diving, examination of fisheries bycatch, and collection of tests from beaches. The updated species list presented in this study includes 39 regular echinoids belonging to 28 genera, nine families, and five orders. Phyllacanthus imperialis (Lamarck, 1816) and Temnopleurus toreumaticus (Leske, 1778), which were not recorded during the last 90 years, were confirmed to still occur in Sri Lanka by the present study. We develop an updated species list of regular echinoids to form a basis for future systematic work. The study recommends further investigation to evaluate the status of deep-sea species and additional field work off the northern and eastern coasts of Sri Lanka.

The association of Parthenopid crab Zebrida adamsii and flower urchin Toxopneustes pileolus is reported for the first time from Gulf of Mannar. The Parthenopid crab Zebrida adamsii has been found to be associated exclusively with these sea urchins and this obligatory association has been studied by introducing another host sea urchin Salmacis virgulata to understand host preferences.

Two new coexisting species of crustacean copepods (Poecilostomatoida) belonging to the echinoid-specific genera Mecomerinx Humes, 1977 (Pseudanthessiidae) and Clavisodalis Humes, 1970 (Taeniacanthidae) found associated with the venomous flower urchin Toxopneustes pileolus (Lamarck) (Echinodermata: Echinoidea: Toxopneustidae) in the South China Sea (Vietnam) are described. The diagnostic features of Mecomerinx ohtsukai n. sp. are: (i) three setae and one aesthetasc on the first segment of antennules; (ii) relatively long caudal ramus; (iii) elongated terminal segment of the antenna; and (iv) two claws on the terminal segment of antenna slightly unequal in length. The taeniacanthid copepod Clavisodalis toxopneusti n. sp. is distinguished from all seven known congeners by having two-segmented endopod of the legs 2–4 and four setae on the distal endopodal segment of the leg 1. This is the first report on copepods associated with echinoids of the genus Toxopneustes Agassiz and the first finding of Mecomerinx as well as taeniacanthid copepods in the South China Sea associated with echinoids.

Some sea urchins were collected from the subtidal rocky bottom of Munseom near Seogwipo, Jejudo Island by SCUBA diving from April to May, 2008 and identified on the basis of their morphological characteristics. Among them, Tripneustes gratilla (Linnaeus, 1758) of Family Toxopneustidae was newly recorded from Korea and redescribed on the specimen collected at a depth of 25 m between Munseom and Sekkiseom. The detailed morphological description was presented with the photographs. This species was characterized by the very naked median areas of ambulacral and interambulacral portions and this genus was the first record in Korea. Eighteen echinoids are so far recorded in Jejudo Island, Korea.

This paper presents a checklist of echinoderm species in the Adriatic Sea. The checklist is based on the review of the available literature data, with temporal coverage from the end of the 18th century to the present day, including the most recent investigations of benthic communities. A total of 108 species have been recorded: 2 species from class Crinoidea, 23 species from class Asteroidea, 22 species from class Ophiuroidea, 22 species from class Echinoidea and 39 species from class Holothuroidea. Non-indigenous echinoderm species have not been observed.

The sea-urchins (class Echinoidea) of South Africa have received little taxonomic attention since the last comprehensive regional monographic guide, which was published in 1976 and is thus now severely outdated. That account was also poorly illustrated, making it difficult to use. Recent work by the authors has also added some 19 additional species to the known fauna, which now stands at 70 species. The aims of this study are thus to revise and update the South African echinoid fauna list, and to present a new, easy to use and fully-illustrated guide to all known regional species. The analysis is based mainly on examination of samples from the Iziko South African Museum collections, although additional records from other museum collections, the published literature, photographic images submitted to the EchinoMap Virtual Museum Database and any other reliable records are also included. A short account of each species is given, including relevant synonymy and literature, and brief notes on identification, size, and global distribution. Photographs that best represent the diagnostic features of each species and a map showing its known records within the region accompany each species account. A binary key to species is also provided.

The sea urchin (Echinodermata: Echinoidea) masticatory apparatus, or Aristotle\'s lantern, is a complex structure composed of numerous hard and soft components. The lantern is powered by various paired and unpaired muscle groups. We describe how one set of these muscles, the lantern protractor muscles, has evolved a specialized morphology. This morphology is characterized by the formation of adaxially-facing lobes perpendicular to the main orientation of the muscle, giving the protractor a frilled aspect in horizontal section. Histological and ultrastructural analyses show that the microstructure of frilled muscles is largely identical to that of conventional, flat muscles. Measurements of muscle dimensions in equally-sized specimens demonstrate that the frilled muscle design, in comparison to that of the flat muscle type, considerably increases muscle volume as well as the muscle\'s surface directed towards the interradial cavity, a compartment of the peripharyngeal coelom. Scanning electron microscopical observations reveal that the insertions of frilled and flat protractor muscles result in characteristic muscle scars on the stereom, reflecting the shapes of individual muscles. Our comparative study of 49 derived “regular” echinoid species using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) shows that frilled protractor muscles are found only in taxa belonging to the families Toxopneustidae, Echinometridae, and Strongylocentrotidae. The onset of lobe formation during ontogenesis varies between species of these three families. Because frilled protractor muscles are best observed in situ, the application of a non-invasive imaging technique was crucial for the unequivocal identification of this morphological character on a large scale. Although it is currently possible only to speculate on the functional advantages which the frilled muscle morphology might confer, our study forms the anatomical and evolutionary framework for future analyses of this unusual muscle design among sea urchins.

Sea urchin spines protect the animal's body from predators and from the effect of high energy environments. The spines of urchins from different orders, families and genera have very different sizes, morphologies and microarchitectures, and the different designs of sea urchin spines reveal much about the design space available for functional biogenic calcite-based structures. The 3D microarchitecture of primary spines of a number of sea urchins was studied with synchrotron microCT and reconstructed with 5 μm or smaller voxels (volume elements), and similarities and differences were determined in order to better understand the design space. Hollow spines from different genera of the family Diadematidae, order Diadematoida, are one type of solution, but significant differences were observed within this phylogenic subset. Spines from members of order Echinoidea, family Toxopneustidae, employ a very different strategy, one that emphasizes interconnected trabeculae to a greater degree than do the diadematids. Numerical data for some 3D structural characteristics are presented, data that would be impractical to obtain by methods other than microCT.

The sea urchin, Toxopneustes pileolus (Lamarck), a member of the family Toxopneustidae, is found on the sea bed in the Indo-Pacific area. It possesses extremely well-developed globiferous pedicellariae which contain pharmacologically active substances and cause deleterious effects (Fujiwara, 1935; Okada., 1955a; Kimura et al., 1975; Nakagawa et al., 1982, 1991 and 1992; Takei et al., 1993). It is suggested that a sea urchin having large pedicellariae is more dangerous than one having numerous small pedicellariae (Halstead, 1987). Okada et al. (1955b) reported that there were sub-types of globiferous pedicellariae on the external surface of T. pileolus: ordinary pedicellaria, trumpet pedicellaria and giant pedicellaria. We have also observed the trumpet pedicellaria (globiferous pedicellaria) and giant pedicellaria (large globiferous pedicellaria). In the course of comparative study on venom proteins from the globiferous pedicellariae and large globiferous pedicellariae of T. pileolus, we found that the crude venom extracts from the pedicellariae of the two sub-types caused agglutination with mouse erythrocytes in a Ca2+-independent manner

1. 1. In a previous study, I examined immunologically the phylogenetic relationships among 10 sea-urchin species belonging to the four families of the order Echinoida by the enzyme inhibition method with anti-Strongylocentrotus intermedius G6PD antibody (Matsuoka, 1980). The results suggested the close affinity between the two families, Strongylocentrotidae and Toxopneustidae of this order. 2. 2. In order to extend the previous immunological study, the immunological cross-reactions of the antibody to G6PDs from nine sea-urchin species collected thereafter were also examined by the enzyme inhibition method. 3. 3. The further immunological results thus obtained confirmed the suggestion that the family Strongylocentrotidae might be closely related to the family Toxopneustidae.

1. 1. The family Toxopneustidae in the seas around Japan is represented by four species of sea-urchins. They are Toxopneustes pileolus , Tripneustes gratilla , Pseudoboletia maculata and Pseudocentrotusdepressus . 2. 2. The phylogenetic relationships among these four members of this family were investigated by electrophoretic analyses of 13 enzymes. 3. 3. The biochemical phylogenetic tree for these species constructed from these electrophoretic data suggests that Pseudoboletia maculata is closely related to Toxopneustes pileolus , and that Pseudocentrotus depressus is strongly differentiated from the other three species. 4. 4. These results agree with the phylogenetic relationships of these species inferred from morphological, zoogeographical and immunological evidence and show the phylogenetic value of electrophoretic data at the genus level.

1. 1. G6PD was purified from eggs of the sea-urchin, Strongylocentrotus intermedius and its specific antibody was raised in a rabbit. 2. 2. Immunological cross-reactions of the antibody to G6PDs of 10 species of sea-urchins of the order Echinoida were examined by the enzyme inhibition test. 3. 3. The immunological data thus obtained strongly suggest a close affinity between the two families, Strongylocentrotidae and Toxopneustidae of this order.