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The transition to adulthood marks a major developmental milestone, and careful planning is required between students, families, and teachers in order to successfully set and achieve postschool goals. For students who are English learners and diagnosed with a disability, additional challenges may arise as they navigate barriers associated with ableism, racism, and learning a new language. In this ethnographic interview study, we explore how collaboration works across the "triad," or between dually identified students, their families, and their teachers in the transition planning process. We observed three patterns that appeared to hinder or facilitate successful transition planning: (a) divergence or missed opportunities for collaboration, (b) convergence and collaboration with a focus on secondary experiences and challenges, and (c) convergence and collaboration with a focus on postschool goals. We discuss each finding and provide recommendations for future research and practice to support improved collaboration and transition planning practices for dually identified students.

We examined the self-determination of English learners with disabilities in secondary school, based on a secondary analysis of the National Longitudinal Transition Study 2012 (NLTS 2012). Self-determination characteristics of English learners with disabilities differed significantly from those of other students with disabilities, and of English learner students and students who are not English learners in the general population, including their being less likely to act autonomously or report empowerment-related or self-realization-related behaviors. Multivariate analyses identified several student and family characteristics associated with variations in aspects of self-determination, including age, gender, and postsecondary expectations. Implications for practice and research are discussed, including the importance of considering these factors when selecting, implementing, and evaluating self-determination interventions for English learners with disabilities. [For the grantee submission, see ED610146.]

Disparities in postschool outcomes between student groups associated with intersecting historical marginalizations such as ableism, racism, classism, and linguicism remain stark. Critical research methods have contributed to the development of equity-focused research. In this conceptual paper, we examine intersectional research, one critical methodology focused on equity. In a recent study of postsecondary transitions of multilingual students with disabilities in the northeastern United States, we found this methodology to be productive in examining marginalization and equitable transition outcomes. First, we define intersectionality and provide a rationale for its use. We then share foundational claims of intersectional research, and we provide illustrative examples from our study. The discussion identifies implementation strategies. Last, we share implications such as tensions, benefits, and insights from our application and the extant literature.

Qualitative research (QR) has gained visibility and acceptance in the field of special education due to early efforts to identify quality indicators focused on technical and methodological aspects of QR. Whereas these indicators focused on credibility and trustworthiness of data, this article articulates additional QR quality indicators to enhance the value and power of researcher reflexivity as a means to expand the capacity of purpose- and equity-driven special education research. First, the need for reflexivity criteria is addressed. Next, reflexivity criteria are operationalized in key questions that engage researchers in self-reflection: (a) Why do QR? (b) By whom, for whom, and with whom is QR being conducted? and (c) Who is affected by the benefits and costs of QR? These questions encourage researchers to grapple with the complexity of experiences, outcomes, and structures associated with special education and ultimately advance more equitable policy and practice. [This article was written by the QR Collective.]

Racially and ethnically diverse youth with disabilities receiving Supplemental Security Income (SSI) benefits were randomly assigned to usual services, including available school and vocational rehabilitation (VR) transition services, or enhanced case management and transition services through the Wisconsin Promoting Readiness of Minors in SSI (PROMISE) federal demonstration grant. A hierarchical logistic regression analysis demonstrated increased age, being African American, having a psychiatric disability, and transition services predicted higher youth employment rates. However, enhanced PROMISE transition services were no longer significant in the presence of VR services, suggesting the effect of enhanced services was mediated by increasing engagement in VR. Limitations and implications are discussed regarding the relationship between school and state VR transition services and postsecondary competitive integrated employment outcomes.

School engagement is an important factor in academic success and social belonging for postsecondary education. Dually identified students receiving special education and English learner services may face obstacles to engagement. We conducted secondary analyses of the National Longitudinal Transition Study from 2012 to provide a description of high school engagement. We then examined engagement through interviews with 26 dually identified students from a large district in the northeastern United States. A contribution of this mixed-methods study is that while national data revealed somewhat limited engagement in extracurricular activities and inconsistent attendance, student interviews reflected self-perceptions of positive engagement. Implications for research and practice include further examining inner-group variation and increasing school-community partnerships for expanded engagement. [For the corresponding grantee submission, see ED623345.]

We examined the effect of three components of self-determination--autonomy, empowerment, and self-realization--on the postsecondary enrollment of English learners with disabilities, using quasi-experimental propensity score modeling and data from the U.S. National Longitudinal Transition Study-2. Results support the hypothesis that self-determination components affect postsecondary school enrollment. English learners with disabilities with higher autonomy scores were more likely to enroll in 2-year colleges, and those with higher empowerment scores were more likely to enroll in 4-year colleges. However, prior research found that English learners with disabilities are less likely to act autonomously or report empowerment-related behaviors than other students with disabilities or students in the general population. Considering the increasing importance of postsecondary education, the current study's findings demonstrate the importance of promoting both the self-determined behaviors of this dually identified population of students and the learning environment supports that facilitate the practice of self-determination. [For the corresponding grantee submission, see ED623339.]

Transition planning is particularly important for dually identified English learners with disabilities, who frequently face additional challenges to postsecondary education success. This study examined postschool expectations, transition planning experiences, and supports of a nationally representative sample of English learners with disabilities, based on secondary analysis of the National Longitudinal Transition Study (NLTS) 2012. Results demonstrated that these students' experiences were similar to other students with disabilities except that, according to parents, the transition component of the individualized education program (IEP) was likely to be developed by school personnel, with little input from students and family members, and necessary information about careers and financial aid was lacking. These findings underscore the intersectional identities and related experiences of this population and the implications for policy, transition education, and school services.

The purpose of this special series is to augment effective instruction for students with learning disabilities who are also considered culturally, racially/ethnically, linguistically, or otherwise diverse. In this paper, we acknowledge the central focus on technical rigor for the purpose of strengthening causal linkages between instruction and learning, thus enhancing instructional efficacy and accuracy. We also recognize that diminished access to effective instruction has contributed to the marginalization of diverse students. In our response to the articles in this series, we focus on the theorization of equity, articulated to varying degrees, underpinning and uniting these papers. Equity underscores the relevancy both of educational diversity and of research methods aimed toward generalizability. We discuss the implications of simultaneously using tools and methods required for both strengthening the empirical research base and studying systemic inequities inherent in our institutions and research practices.

Secondary educators implement an array of work-based learning activities that expose transition-age students to the demands of post-secondary employment. One such strategy, internships, provides students with a formal opportunity to acquire transferable employment skills that lead to meaningful post-secondary employment outcomes. Facilitating internships for transition-aged students with disabilities, however, presents challenges for educators because internships often involve complicated and sometimes ambiguous labor laws, regulations, and provisions. This article provides secondary educators with information about how to facilitate unpaid and paid internships for students with disabilities that align with requirements established by the Fair Labor Standards Act. The article provides a case study to illustrate how schools can develop both unpaid and paid internships and concludes with recommendations for best practices.

Multiple behavioral interventions for individuals with autism spectrum disorders have been established with adequate scientific evidence. Behavioral interventions, however, are cultural practices and often rely on home-school interactions for implementation. Little is known about intervention applicability and feasibility for cultural and linguistic minorities with autism. This case study explored how Korean American parents and community members engaged in the cultural practice of an evidence-based intervention, pivotal response treatment (PRT). This qualitative study, a part of a larger mixed methods project, included the collection and analysis of interviews, observations, and field notes. Four key findings characterized stakeholders' experiences and perceptions: (a) valued aspects of intervention, (b) comfort of procedural certainty, (c) reassurance of social successes, and (d) affirmation of the intervention's reach. These findings provide a base for the development of culturally relevant PRT and have implications for intervention research and practice.

The role of research in transition education has been prominent and influential. Yet too many young people with disabilities are still not experiencing outcomes aligned with their personal aspirations and priorities. Moreover, individuals with disabilities continue to experience barriers to employment, educational, economic, and other challenges well into adulthood. Moving forward as a field will require continued investment in strong scholarship and careful consideration of new areas of inquiry. In this article, we present a framework for transition research designed to identify key issues and intersections in which future inquiry should be directed. We present research needs in six different areas to illustrate these possibilities. We also highlight some of the complexities and considerations associated with conducting this research.

This study examined the relationship between demographic, disability-related, and transition planning experiences and accessing disability-specific and universally available supports at 2- and 4-year colleges by postsecondary students identified in secondary school as English learners with disabilities. Findings were based on secondary analysis of a nationally representative sample of approximately 160 English learners with disabilities included in the National Longitudinal Transition Study-2 (NLTS2). Logistic regression results identified two potentially malleable factors linked to increased likelihood of English learners with disabilities accessing postsecondary supports. If these students had a high school transition plan that indicated postsecondary supports as a needed post-high school service, when they attended college they were more likely to access both postsecondary disability-specific supports (p <.01), and supports universally available to the full postsecondary student body (p <.001). Aspects of self-determination also were related to an increased likelihood of seeking postsecondary supports. Higher levels of personal autonomy were positively related to accessing disability-specific (p <.001) and universally available help (p <.05), and higher levels of psychological empowerment were related to receipt of universally available supports (p <.01). These findings demonstrate that high school professionals can support the postschool success of English learners with disabilities by influencing their likelihood of accessing beneficial supports in postsecondary school. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigated to what extent faculty members include and value transition curricula in special education preparation programs in Saudi Arabia. A web-based survey was conducted and sent to special education professors across 20 universities. Descriptive statistics and a t-test analysis generated three main findings: (a) Institutions covered transition by adding specialized courses and/or through infusing of transition content in other courses, (b) institutions covered all 29 transition competencies at varying rates, and (c) both male and female faculty members placed high value on teaching their students in the principles of transition education and services. Implications and recommendations for future research were discussed.

Neither legislative demand for evidence-based practices nor a focus on experimental designs for educational interventions has ameliorated the disparate educational opportunities and outcomes for youth from nondominant cultural and linguistic backgrounds. Recent initiatives to increase the rigor of intervention research in special education have largely ignored the implications of culture and its role in experimental research. The extent to which the experimental intervention studies are culturally responsive remains unexplored. We developed a rubric, modeled after prior rubrics for quality indicators of special education research, identifying criteria for culturally responsive research. Rubric items were created following a systematic review of literature and gathering feedback from experts. The 15-item rubric uses culture as a generative concept that mediates each aspect of experimental intervention research. Implications include expanding the field's dominant empirical paradigm and increasing reflexivity and responsivity in knowledge production that may contribute to a paradigm expansion in special education research.

Transition planning is conceptually and empirically linked to successful postschool outcomes for adolescents with disabilities and has been legally mandated for more than two decades. Unfortunately, young adults with high-incidence disabilities, including learning disabilities (LD), emotional disabilities (ED), and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), continue to experience poor postschool outcomes. Using a secondary analysis of the second National Longitudinal Transition Study (NLTS2), this study examined both the quality and characteristics of transition plans for a nationally representative group of adolescents with high-incidence disabilities and the extent to which transition planning and services were similar across the three high-incidence disabilities. Findings indicate that a majority of students with high-incidence disabilities have transition plans and that key stakeholders participated in planning meetings. Findings also support the inclusion of adolescents with LD, ED, and ADHD in the larger category of high-incidence disabilities. Implications include further examination of the disparate relationship between planning and outcomes.

Little is known about the characteristics, transition education, and postschool outcomes of English learners with disabilities (ELSWDs), despite that English learners are a rapidly growing group of U.S. students with consistently poor outcomes. This study examines a nationally representative sample of ELSWDs through a secondary analysis of the National Longitudinal Transition Study-2 (NLTS2). Complex Samples statistical analyses were used to identify ELSWDs' sociodemographic characteristics, education and transition program characteristics, and postschool outcomes. Results confirmed disproportionate identification by race/ethnicity for Latinos and White as ELSWDs. Findings also illustrated alignment between transition planning and courses taken, yet postschool employment was significantly lower for ELSWDs. Implications include the need for research methods that address ELSWDs disproportionality in high school and transition outcome variables unique to this population. Implications for practice include the development of teacher preparation programs that apprise secondary special educators of ELSWD characteristics and their transition-related preferences, strengths, and needs.

Although federal law now mandates age-appropriate transition assessment as a key component of high-quality transition planning, little research exists to guide educators on what they might learn when undertaking this process. In this study, the authors examined teacher and parent assessments of the transition-related strengths and needs of 134 youth with severe intellectual and developmental disabilities who were eligible for the state's alternate assessment. The perspectives of teachers and parents regarding the transition-related strengths and needs of particular students often diverged in key ways. Students with severe disabilities were perceived as having a range of transition-related strengths across the nine transition domains. Although a number of transition-related needs were identified by teachers, the transition profiles of individual students within this sample were quite heterogeneous. The authors offer recommendations for strengthening the transition assessment and planning process by incorporating multiple perspectives, and present important directions for future research on transition assessment.

Researchers and practitioners have struggled to promote optimal academic, behavioral, and postschool outcomes for historically marginalized youth from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds. While there is a growing body of evidence-based interventions in special education, the extent to which these interventions are culturally responsive remains unexplored. Culturally responsive research (CRR) has gained increased attention in social sciences. The authors developed a 15-item rubric to evaluate the cultural responsiveness of research. They applied the rubric to six studies in transition education identified as high-quality intervention studies to determine the extent to which these met the criteria for CRR. Results from this analysis demonstrated that while none of the studies were indicative of CRR across all rubric items, strengths in question relevancy, sampling, participant description, and data collection strategies were noted.

Despite previous and successful attempts to outline general criteria for rigor, researchers in special education have debated the application of rigor criteria, the significance or importance of small n research, the purpose of interpretivist approaches, and the generalizability of qualitative empirical results. Adding to these complications, the breadth of qualitative research methods makes a single set of universally applicable criteria difficult to identify and use. Based on input from qualitative researchers across the social sciences, we augment and expand the oft-cited criteria for rigor established in special education, thus broadening the potential application and contribution of qualitative research in the areas of disability and education. We identify exemplars from special education research and use these to illustrate ways qualitative research can push the field to strengthen the theoretical foundations of empirical work, as well as to acknowledge more forthrightly the roles of the researcher in the research endeavor.

Social capital, relationships, and networks among people who share resources with one another, is essential to the successful transition into adulthood for all individuals--with or without disabilities. Social capital is particularly valuable for youth with disabilities because it has the potential to create access to other forms of capital as they face challenges specific to disability and interact in the adult worlds of employment, postsecondary education, and community. This article will discuss how young adults with high incidence disabilities are connected to social networks as part of their transition to adult outcomes, including employment, postsecondary education, and community life. It concludes with implications for promoting positive social networks to improve adulthood. (Contains 2 tables and 1 figure.)

In addition to typical career development and vocational programs in general education, providing school-based programs that are directly linked to employment and career development for youth with learning and emotional and behavioral disabilities is a legally mandated service in special education. Several broad research-based strategies are common to successful career development, vocational, and transition education programs: implementing career assessments, providing extracurricular and early work experiences, developing social capital, and providing opportunities for students' self-determination. Tips and resources for each of these strategies are provided. (Contains 1 table and 3 figures.)

Although early work experiences can impart a number of benefits to adolescents with disabilities, few students have meaningful access to these opportunities. The authors examined "community conversations" to build capacity and interest in expanding employment opportunities. Events were held in seven different communities and used the World Cafe process (Brown & Isaacs, 2005) to facilitate asset-based identification of localized next steps. Observations, analyses of surveys completed by the 239 community members who attended, and examination of artifacts suggested that the events offer a promising avenue for identifying solutions, building social capital, and increasing employment opportunities. The authors offer recommendations for drawing on this approach to harness and build the capacity of communities to support youth in transition, along with directions for future research. (Contains 3 tables.)

Although summer represents an opportune time for adolescents to garner employment and community experiences that may further long-term transition goals, little is known about the expectations and needs of adolescents with disabilities during this break in the academic school year. In this article, the authors explore adolescents' perceptions about summer employment and community involvement, adult guidance, and factors that facilitate or hinder access to these experiences. They conducted focus group interviews of 16 adolescents with cognitive, emotional/behavioral, and learning disabilities from two distinct communities. Although participants held high expectations for maintaining summer jobs, they pursued work and community experiences independently and with varied success. Despite articulating low expectations for adult guidance, participants expressed a desire and/or need for mentorship or other more indirect support. By drawing on the perspectives of the adolescents themselves, the authors address (a) the value of summer as a vehicle for transition education and (b) the implications for helping teenagers secure fulfilling summer experiences. (Contains 1 table.)

The early work experiences of a nationally representative sample of youth with severe disabilities (i.e., intellectual disabilities, autism, multiple disabilities) were examined. Using data from the National Longitudinal Transition Study-2, we explored the extent to which various student-, family-, school-, and community-level factors were associated with paid work experiences during high school. Findings highlight the elusiveness of early work experiences for many youth with severe disabilities and call attention to malleable factors that may play a role in shaping employment success during high school. Recommendations for research and practice are highlighted.

Although summer offers a natural context for adolescents to gain community-based work experience, little is known about the extent to which youth with disabilities are accessing these transition-related opportunities. We examined the summer employment experiences of 220 youth with high-incidence disabilities at two time points. Although more than half of all youth were employed at some point during the summer, youth with emotional/behavioral disorders and intellectual disabilities worked at significantly lower rates than youth with learning disabilities, and all received limited formal support related to finding and maintaining their jobs. Skill-related factors and spring work experience emerged as prominent predictors of summer employment outcomes. We present recommendations for schools, families, and communities to expand summer employment opportunities for youth with disabilities as an avenue for promoting career development. (Contains 6 tables and 1 figure.)

Despite the potential contributions of adolescent employment to postschool success, many youth who experience emotional and behavioral difficulties (EBD) do not access these opportunities. This intervention study examined the effects of a package of strategies designed to increase access to summer work experiences. Fifty-seven youth with EBD from seven high schools were randomly assigned to intervention and comparison groups. A significantly higher proportion of youth in the intervention group were employed toward the end of the summer relative to youth from their same schools in the comparison group. Intervention components were rated as feasible to implement and acceptable to relevant stakeholders. Steps to sharpen the intervention's ability to address the transition-related needs of youth with EBD are discussed. (Contains 4 tables.)

Highly regulated parent participation in special education requires both parents and teachers to use cultural and social capital relative to education legislation, disability, and parenting. Examined through a Bourdieuian analytical lens, data from focus groups and individual interviews with families provide examples of the salience of disability in the acquisition and use of cultural and social capital in educational contexts, serving to both reify dominance and support individual agency.

Developing educators' attitudes toward and skills in working with families is vital, given both legislative mandates and the different and potentially difficult experiences with home-school collaboration for families. This study explores 17 educators' expectations of parents' acquisition and use of cultural and social capital through focus group interviews. Results indicate that teachers considered disability acknowledgement and acceptance of disability-related information to be essential capital for parent participation. Increasing educators' understanding of the role of capital can augment teachers' positive attitudes toward parents, their ability to engage them in productive home-school collaboration, and their skills as advocates for students with disabilities and their families. (Contains 1 table.)

Home-school partnerships in special education often include parent advocacy that at times requires specific and specialized knowledge, skills, and attitudes. Parent participation is shaped by access to cultural and social capital resources and is critical to assessment and service delivery. This study explores the types of capital resources parents perceived necessary to their participation via five focus groups of participants from a range of socioeconomic, disability, and racial or ethnic backgrounds through 27 in-depth interviews. NVIVO7 was used to analyze data; categorical meaning and relational themes were coded recursively. Results indicated that intercultural and intracultural differences existed among parents. Advocacy on behalf of one student also required different capital resources than did advocacy for systems change. Discussion focuses on implications of parent advocacy on educational equity. (Contains 1 table.)

Equipping youth with and without disabilities for the world of work has been the focus of ongoing legislative and policy initiatives. The authors examined the extent to which career development and vocational activities were available to and accessed by youth with severe disabilities or emotional and behavioral disorders attending 34 urban, suburban, and rural high schools. Although school-level representatives (e.g., administrators, guidance counselors, student services directors) identified an array of career development opportunities offered by their schools, participation by youth with disabilities in these experiences was reported to be fairly limited. Potential factors influencing the participation of youth included disability-related needs and limited professional development opportunities for educators. The authors present recommendations for improving research and practice aimed at better preparing youth with disabilities for their future careers. (Contains 1 table and 1 figure.)

Although early work experiences during high school represent one of the most consistent predictors of postschool employment for young adults with disabilities, little is known about how these adolescents might access these valuable transition experiences. This study examined the summer employment and community activities of 136 high school students with severe disabilities. The majority of youth was either not working (61.7%) or reported sheltered employment (11.1%). The most prominent predictors of summer employment status were holding a job during the spring semester and teacher expectations for employment. Recommendations for research and practice focus on increasing the capacity of schools, families, and communities to support the involvement of youth with severe disabilities in meaningful summer activities. (Contains 1 figure and 3 tables.)

Promoting student self-determination has emerged as a key component of recommended practices in the field of secondary transition. This article examined the self-determination prospects of 196 youth with emotional and behavioral disorders (EBD), learning disabilities (LD), and mild/moderate cognitive disabilities (CD) using the "AIR Self-Determination Scale." Teachers reported the capacities of youth with EBD to engage in self-determined behavior to be significantly lower than those of youth with LD but higher than youth with CD. Social skills and problem behavior ratings both emerged as significant predictors of students' capacity for self-determination but were not associated with the opportunities for self-determination teachers reported providing at school. Teachers generally evaluated students' capacity for self-determination lower than youth but higher than parents. Implications for transition assessment and planning are discussed and avenues for further research addressing this critical transition domain are suggested. (Contains 4 tables.)

Regardless of disability status, adolescents benefit from planning and instruction as they prepare to move forward into adulthood. For those with disabilities, however, transition education--that is, the planning, direct instruction, and experiential learning that helps adolescents make decisions and gain requisite attitudes, knowledge, and skills--is essential to attaining adult success. Because adolescents with disabilities face unique challenges to postsecondary education, employment, and other aspects of achieving adult success, transition education models address a range of adult domains. Despite the advancement of special education postsecondary transition theory and practice, some groups of youth, particularly those who have been historically marginalized, continue to fare worse than their dominant-group peers. This article considers the state of transition education and planning for youth with disabilities, paying particular attention to majority/minority issues and trends. (Contains 1 table.)

We asked teachers and parents to assess the self-determination prospects of 135 youth with severe intellectual and developmental disabilities. Teachers typically reported that youth evidenced limited knowledge about self-determined behavior, ability to perform these behaviors, and confidence regarding the efficacy of their self-determination efforts. Parents and teachers diverged in their evaluations of the self-determination capacities of youth but agreed that opportunities to engage in self-determined behavior were available both at school and home. Although social skill and problem behavior ratings both were significant predictors of teachers' ratings of students' self-determination capacity, opportunities at school, opportunities at home, and problem behaviors were negatively correlated with ratings of students' self-determination capacities and opportunities.

Although meaningful assessment is considered the cornerstone of transition planning, little empirical guidance is available to inform this assessment process. This study examined the transition-related strengths and needs of 160 students with emotional and/or behavioral disorders (EBD) or learning disabilities (LD) from the perspectives of special educators, parents, and youth. Teachers rated youth with EBD as evidencing more substantial needs than youth with LD across all 9 planning domains. Student's ratings were significantly higher than those of their teachers and parents. Variability in the extent to which participants reported having sufficient information to assess each domain, as well as the extent to which they considered each domain to be relevant to planning, highlights the importance of incorporating multiple perspectives into transition planning. (Contains 1 figure and 4 tables.)

Although preparing youth with significant disabilities for future careers is a central focus of transition education, the task can be overwhelming for high school teachers and staff to tackle alone. Educators describe a number of common barriers to promoting youth employment, including the perceived inexperience of the student, the unwillingness of local employers to hire youth with disabilities, limited awareness by teachers and families of the array of work-related opportunities and resources that might exist in their communities, weak linkages between schools and community employers, and difficulty finding transportation and on-the-job supports. The broader community needs to be more meaningfully and effectively engaged to substantively improve outcomes for youth with significant disabilities. Communities are reservoirs of expertise, relationships, supports, opportunities, ideas, and other assets that can be used to expand the employment experiences of youth with disabilities. This article discusses a research project which focused on developing effective, practical strategies that schools and communities can use to expand employment opportunities and outcomes for transition-age youth with significant disabilities. Recognizing the importance of the receptiveness and support of the local community, the project team worked with seven diverse communities to explore "community conversations" as a launching point for efforts to expand local employment for youth with significant disabilities. These conversations were designed to: (1) foster dialogue centered on ways that schools, businesses, agencies, organizations, families, youth, and others could work together to broaden the job opportunities in their local community; and (2) identify new partners willing to collaborate with participating high schools in addressing youth employment. The article outlines the practical steps and considerations associated with implementing a community conversation, and describes the promise this strategy holds for improving the transition experiences of youth with disabilities. (Contains 1 figure.)