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Fractures and vents in the ice crust of Europa, exposing the sub-surface ocean to the vacuum, might be responsible for the generation of planetary-scale water-vapor plumes. During its passage through the ice, the plume vapor is expected to partially condense on the walls, depositing until the vent is sealed. We develop a lumped-parameter model to analyze the sealing time scales. Neglecting all other possible mechanisms (water spillage, compression forces, etc.), we find shutting-off times compatible with the 7-hour plume observed in 2012 by the Hubble Space Telescope, suggesting that vapor deposition alone could have been responsible for sealing the vent. A map of sealing times vs. plume density, mass flow rate and aperture areas is given. Plume quantities from the literature are analyzed and compared to our results. For a given plume density/mass flow rate, small apertures would be sealed quickly by molecular deposition and are thus incompatible with observations.

We have measured the absolute doubly differential angular sputtering yield for 20 keV Kr+ impacting a polycrystalline Cu slab at an incidence angle of {\theta}i = 45{\deg} relative to the surface normal. Sputtered Cu atoms were captured using collectors mounted on a half dome above the sample, and the sputtering distribution was measured as a function of the sputtering polar, {\theta}s, and azimuthal, phi, angles. Absolute results of the sputtering yield were determined from the mass gain of each collector, the ion dose, and the solid angle subtended, after irradiation to a total fluence of ~ 1 x 10^18 ions/cm^2. Our approach overcomes shortcomings of commonly used methods that only provide relative yields as a function of {\theta}s in the incidence plane (defined by the ion velocity and the surface normal). Our experimental results display an azimuthal variation that increases with increasing {\theta}s and is clearly discrepant with simulations using binary collision theory. We attribute the observed azimuthal anisotropy to ion-induced formation of micro- and nano-scale surface features that suppress the sputtering yield through shadowing and redeposition effects, neither of which are accounted for in the simulations. Our experimental results demonstrate the importance of doubly differential angular sputtering studies to probe ion sputtering processes at a fundamental level and to explore the effect of ion-beam-generated surface roughness., Comment: 29 pages, 9 figures

Future exploration efforts of the Moon, Mars and other bodies are poised to focus heavily on persistent and sustainable survey and research efforts, especially given the recent interest in a long-term sustainable human presence at the Moon. Key to these efforts is understanding a number of important processes on the lunar surface for both scientific and operational purposes. We discuss the potential value of in-situ artificial substrate witness plates, powerful tools that can supplement familiar remote sensing and sample acquisition techniques and provide a sustainable way of monitoring processes in key locations on planetary surfaces while maintaining a low environmental footprint. These tools, which we call Biscuits, can use customized materials as wide ranging as zircon-based spray coatings to metals potentially usable for surface structures, to target specific processes/questions as part of a small, passive witness plate that can be flexibly placed with respect to location and total time duration. We examine and discuss unique case studies to show how processes such as water presence/transport, presence and contamination of biologically relevant molecules, solar activity related effects, and other processes can be measured using Biscuits. Biscuits can yield key location sensitive, time integrated measurements on these processes to inform scientific understanding of the Moon and enable operational goals in lunar exploration. While we specifically demonstrate this on a simulated traverse and for selected examples, we stress all groups interested in planetary surfaces should consider these adaptable, low footprint and highly informative tools for future exploration., Comment: Accepted to Earth and Space Science, Will be updated upon publication

We explore the parameter space for the contribution to Callisto's H corona observed by the Hubble Space Telescope (Roth et al. 2017a) from sublimated H2O and radiolytically produced H2 using the Direct Simulation Monte Carlo (DSMC) method. The spatial morphology of this corona produced via photo- and magnetospheric electron impact-induced dissociation is described by tracking the motion of and simulating collisions between the hot H atoms and thermal molecules including a near-surface O2 component. Our results indicate that sublimated H2O produced from the surface ice, whether assumed to be intimately mixed with or distinctly segregated from the dark non-ice or ice-poor regolith, cannot explain the observed structure of the H corona. On the other hand, a global H2 component can reproduced the observation, and is also capable of producing the enhanced electron densities observed at high altitudes by Galileo's plasma-wave instrument (Gurnett et al., 1997, 2000), providing the first evidence of H2 in Callisto's atmosphere. The range of H2 surface densities explored, under a variety of conditions, that are consistent with these observations is ~(0.4-1)x10^8 cm^-3. The simulated H2 escape rates and estimated lifetimes suggest that Callisto has a neutral H2 torus. We also place a rough upper limit on the peak H2O number density (<~10^8 cm^-3), column density (<~10^15 cm^-2), and sublimation flux (<~10^12 cm^-2 s^-1), all of which are 1-2 orders of magnitude less than that assumed in previous models. Finally, we discuss the implications of these results, as well as how they compare to Europa and Ganymede.

Persephone is a NASA concept mission study that addresses key questions raised by New Horizons' encounters with Kuiper Belt objects (KBOs), with arguably the most important being "Does Pluto have a subsurface ocean?". More broadly, Persephone would answer four significant science questions: (1) What are the internal structures of Pluto and Charon? (2) How have the surfaces and atmospheres in the Pluto system evolved? (3) How has the KBO population evolved? (4) What are the particles and magnetic field environments of the Kuiper Belt? To answer these questions, Persephone has a comprehensive payload, and would both orbit within the Pluto system and encounter other KBOs. The nominal mission is 30.7 years long, with launch in 2031 on a Space Launch System (SLS) Block 2 rocket with a Centaur kick stage, followed by a 27.6 year cruise powered by existing radioisotope electric propulsion (REP) and a Jupiter gravity assist to reach Pluto in 2058. En route to Pluto, Persephone would have one 50- to 100-km-class KBO encounter before starting a 3.1 Earth-year orbital campaign of the Pluto system. The mission also includes the potential for an 8-year extended mission, which would enable the exploration of another KBO in the 100- to 150-km-size class. The mission payload includes 11 instruments: Panchromatic and Color High-Resolution Imager; Low-Light Camera; Ultra-Violet Spectrometer; Near-Infrared (IR) Spectrometer; Thermal IR Camera; Radio Frequency Spectrometer; Mass Spectrometer; Altimeter; Sounding Radar; Magnetometer; and Plasma Spectrometer. The nominal cost of this mission is $3.0B, making it a large strategic science mission.

We examine how water is produced globally over the lunar surface as it orbits in/out of the magnetotail. Due to the interaction of the solar wind (SW) with Earth's magnetic field, upstream the magnetic field is compressed down to ~10 Earth radii. However, the diverted stream of SW around Earth's magnetic field results in an extended depleted region of SW protons (positively charged hydrogen) out to 1000's of Earth radii, referred to as the magnetotail. The Moon orbits at a distance of ~40 Earth radii; therefore, upstream it is within the SW, but downstream it is partially shielded while in the magnetotail during full Moon. SW protons penetrate lunar soil particles and some H atoms can chemical react with oxygen to form water-like molecules such as OH/H2O. Most of the H atoms bounce around within grains until finding another hydrogen atom, chemically combine, and then escape the grain as H2 into the thin atmosphere. We developed a model to calculate the global distribution of OH produced in the lunar surface and H2 released to the atmosphere as the Moon orbits in/out of Earth's magnetotail. The model results are in good agreement with available observations., Comment: Under review with JGR

Early in the Moon's history volcanic outgassing may have produced a periodic millibar level atmosphere (Needham and Kring, 2017). We examined the relevant atmospheric escape processes and lifetime of such an atmosphere. Thermal escape rates were calculated as a function of atmospheric mass for a range of temperatures including the effect of the presence of a light constituent such as H2. Photochemical escape and atmospheric sputtering were calculated using estimates of the higher EUV and plasma fluxes consistent with the early Sun. The often used surface Jeans calculation carried out in Vondrak (1974) is not applicable for the scale and composition of the atmosphere considered. We show that solar driven non-thermal escape can remove an early CO millibar level atmosphere on the order of 1 Myr if the average exobase temperature is below 350 - 400 K. However, if solar UV/EUV absorption heats the upper atmosphere to temperatures > 400 K thermal escape increasingly dominates the loss rate, and we estimated a minimum lifetime of 100's of years considering energy limited escape., Comment: Submitted to Icarus

We outline a flagship-class mission concept focused on studying Titan as a global system, with particular emphasis on the polar regions. Investigating Titan from the unique standpoint of a polar orbit would enable comprehensive global maps to uncover the physics and chemistry of the atmosphere, and the topography and geophysical environment of the surface and subsurface. The mission includes two key elements: (1) an orbiter spacecraft, which also acts as a data relay, and (2) one or more small probes to directly investigate Titan's seas and make the first direct measurements of their liquid composition and physical environment. The orbiter would carry a sophisticated remote sensing payload, including a novel topographic lidar, a long-wavelength surface-penetrating radar, a sub-millimeter sounder for winds and for mesospheric/thermospheric composition, and a camera and near-infrared spectrometer. An instrument suite to analyze particles and fields would include a mass spectrometer to focus on the interactions between Titan's escaping upper atmosphere and the solar wind and Saturnian magnetosphere. The orbiter would enter a stable polar orbit around 1500 to 1800 km, from which vantage point it would make global maps of the atmosphere and surface. One or more probes, released from the orbiter, would investigate Titan's seas in situ, including possible differences in composition between higher and lower latitude seas, as well as the atmosphere during the parachute descent. The number of probes, as well as the instrument complement on the orbiter and probe, remain to be finalized during a mission study that we recommend to NASA as part of the NRC Decadal Survey for Planetary Science now underway, with the goal of an overall mission cost in the "small flagship" category of ~$2 bn. International partnerships, similar to Cassini-Huygens, may also be included for consideration., Comment: 13 pages, white paper submitted to the NRC Decadal Survey for Planetary Science and Astrobiology

The upper atmospheres of Mars and Titan, as well as those on many other planetary bodies, exhibit significant density variations vs. altitude that are interpreted as gravity waves. Such data is then used to extract vertical temperature profiles, even when such perturbations propagate through the transition region from a collision dominated regime and into a planet's exosphere. Since the temperature profile is critical for describing the upper atmospheric heating and evolution, we use molecular kinetic simulations to describe transient perturbations in a Mars-like upper atmosphere. We show that the standard methods for extracting the temperature profile can fail dramatically so that molecular kinetic simulations, calibrated to observed density profiles, are needed in this region of a planet's atmosphere.

Escape of an early atmosphere from Titan, during which time NH3 could be converted by photolysis into the present N2 dominated atmosphere, is an important problem in planetary science. Recently Gilliam and Lerman (2014) estimated escape driven by the surface temperature and pressure, which we show gave loss rates that are orders of magnitude too large. Their model, related to Jeans escape from an isothermal atmosphere, was used to show that escape driven only by surface heating would deplete the atmospheric inventory of N for a suggested Titan accretion temperature of ~355 K. Therefore, they concluded that the accretion temperature must be lower in order to retain the present Titan atmosphere. Here we show that the near surface atmospheric temperature is essentially irrelevant for determining the atmospheric loss rate from Titan and that escape is predominantly driven by solar heating of the upper atmosphere. We also give a rough estimate of the escape rate in the early solar system (~10^4 kg/s) consistent with an inventory of nitrogen being available over the time period suggested by Atreya et al. (1978) for conversion of NH3 into N2., Comment: 6 pages

Thermally-driven atmospheric escape evolves from an organized outflow (hydrodynamic escape) to escape on a molecule by molecules basis (Jeans escape) with increasing Jeans parameter, the ratio of the gravitational to thermal energy of molecules in a planet's atmosphere. This transition is described here using the direct simulation Monte Carlo method for a single component spherically symmetric atmosphere. When the heating is predominantly below the lower boundary of the simulation region, R0, and well below the exobase, this transition is shown to occur over a surprisingly narrow range of Jeans parameters evaluated at R0: {\lambda}0 ~ 2-3. The Jeans parameter {\lambda}0 ~ 2.1 roughly corresponds to the upper limit for isentropic, supersonic outflow and for {\lambda}0 >3 escape occurs on a molecule by molecule basis. For {\lambda}0 > ~6, it is shown that the escape rate does not deviate significantly from the familiar Jeans rate evaluated at the nominal exobase, contrary to what has been suggested. Scaling by the Jeans parameter and the Knudsen number, escape calculations for Pluto and an early Earth's atmosphere are evaluated, and the results presented here can be applied to thermally-induced escape from a number of solar and extrasolar planetary bodies., Comment: 16 pages,5 figures