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Naive CD4+ T-cell differentiation to T helper 1 (Th1) and Th2 cells is dependent on T-bet and GATA-3 factors, respectively. T-bet and GATA-3, indeed, through chromatin remodelling allow transcriptional activation of Ifngamma and Th2 cytokine (Il4, Il5, Il13) genes, respectively. We investigated the effects of the negative costimulatory receptor cytotoxic T-lymphocyte antigen-4 (CTLA-4) on GATA-3 and T-bet mRNA expression and Th cell differentiation in mouse naive CD4+ T cells. Our results show that CTLA-4 inhibits GATA-3 mRNA expression and Th2 cell differentiation. At variance, CTLA-4 does not affect T-bet mRNA expression and Th1 cell differentiation. GATA-3 mRNA expression is inhibited when CD4+ cells are stimulated under both neutral (i.e. absence of cytokines) and Th2-polarizing (i.e. presence of interleukin (IL)-4) conditions, the effect being larger under the latter condition. Hence CTLA-4 might affect the IL-4/signal transducer and activator of transcription-6 (STAT6) pathway leading to GATA-3 mRNA up-regulation. We found, indeed, that CTLA-4 engagement inhibits STAT6 activation leaving unaffected the STAT6 protein level. Moreover, CTLA-4 engagement drastically inhibits IL-4Ralpha mRNA and protein up-regulation under Th2-polarizing conditions. Thus, CTLA-4 exerts a tight control on Th2 cell differentiation by negatively regulating both the CD3/CD28 and the IL-4/STAT6 pathways.

The aim of this study was to evaluate whether daily whole-body exposure to 900 MHz GSM-modulated radiation could affect spleen lymphocytes. C57BL/6 mice were exposed 2 h/day for 1, 2 or 4 weeks in a TEM cell to an SAR of 1 or 2 W/kg. Untreated and sham-exposed groups were also examined. At the end of the exposure, mice were killed humanely and spleen cells were collected. The number of spleen cells, the percentages of B and T cells, and the distribution of T-cell subpopulations (CD4 and CD8) were not altered by the exposure. T and B cells were also stimulated ex vivo using specific monoclonal antibodies or LPS to induce cell proliferation, cytokine production and expression of activation markers. The results did not show relevant differences in either T or B lymphocytes from mice exposed to an SAR of 1 or 2 W/kg and sham-exposed mice with few exceptions. After 1 week of exposure to 1 or 2 W/kg, an increase in IFN-gamma (Ifng) production was observed that was not evident when the exposure was prolonged to 2 or 4 weeks. This suggests that the immune system might have adapted to RF radiation as it does with other stressing agents. All together, our in vivo data indicate that the T- and B-cell compartments were not substantially affected by exposure to RF radiation and that a clinically relevant effect of RF radiation on the immune system is unlikely to occur.

CTLA-4 deficient mice show severe lymphoproliferative disorders with T helper sub-population skewed toward the Th2 phenotype. In the present work, we investigated the role of CTLA-4 in T helper cell subset differentiation. Naïve CD4+ cells were stimulated with anti-CD3 and anti-CD28 mAbs in the presence of either IL-12 or IL-4 to induce polarisation to Th1 or Th2 cells, respectively. Under these two polarising conditions cells express comparable levels of CTLA-4. CTLA4 was stimulated by plastic-bound mAb. The frequency of IFN-gamma- and IL-4-producing cells were estimated by FACS analysis. In parallel cultures, polarised Th1 and Th2 cells were re-stimulated with anti-CD3 and anti-CD28 mAbs for 48 h and their culture supernatants analysed by ELISA. Results show that CTLA-4 engagement during differentiation inhibits polarisation of naive CD4+ cells to the Th2 but not the Th1 cell subset. At variance, once cells are polarised, CTLA-4 engagement inhibits cytokine production in both effector Th2 and Th1 cells. Altogether these data indicate that CTLA-4 may interfere not only in the signalling involved in acute transcriptional activation of both Th1 and Th2 cells but also in the development of one of the Th cell subsets.

We demonstrated previously that beta-carotene may affect cell growth by a redox mechanism. The purpose of this study was to determine whether the redox-sensitive transcription factor nuclear factor (NF)-kappaB may be involved in the growth-inhibitory and proapoptotic effects of the carotenoid. To test this hypothesis, human leukemic cells (HL-60) and colon adenocarcinoma cells (LS-174 and WiDr) were treated with beta-carotene, alone or in combination with alpha-tocopherol or N-acetylcysteine, and changes in 1) cell oxidative status, 2) cell growth and apoptosis, 3) DNA-binding activity of NF-kappaB and 4) expression of c-myc, a NF-kappaB target gene involved in apoptosis, were evaluated. In HL-60 cells, beta-carotene induced a significant increase in reactive oxygen species (ROS) production (P < 0.001) and in oxidized glutathione (GSSG) content (P < 0.005) at concentrations >/=10 micro mol/L. These effects were always accompanied by a sustained elevation of NF-kappaB and by a significant inhibition (P < 0.002) of cell growth. NF-kappaB DNA-binding activity increased at 3 h and persisted for at least 48 h. Colon adenocarcinoma cells displayed substantial differences in their sensitivity to beta-carotene, exhibiting increased ROS levels and activation of NF-kappaB at concentrations much lower in LS-174 cells (2.5-5.0 micro mol/L) than in WiDr cells (50-100 micro mol/L). In all cell lines studied, alpha-tocopherol and N-acetylcysteine inhibited the effects of beta-carotene on NF-kappaB, cell growth and apoptosis, and normalized the increased expression of c-myc induced by the carotenoid. These data suggest that the redox regulation of NF-kappaB induced by beta-carotene is involved in the growth-inhibitory and proapoptotic effects of the carotenoid in tumor cells.

The negative role exerted by cytotoxic T lymphocyte-associated antigen-4 (CTLA-4) in the regulation of T-cell activity, as induced by T-cell receptor (TCR)/CD3 and CD28 costimulation, has been widely described. In the present work we investigated the role of CTLA-4 in the control of cell activation, as induced by costimulation of the adhesion molecule lymphocyte function-associated antigen-1 (LFA-1) in murine CD4+ T cells. Results show that CTLA-4 engagement inhibits interleukin-2 (IL-2) production, not only when induced by CD3/CD28 costimulation, but also when CD4+ T cells are costimulated by anti-CD3 and anti-LFA-1 monoclonal antibodies (mAbs). LFA-1 has been described to induce Ca2+ mobilization also in the absence of TCR engagement. Moreover, we found that CTLA-4 engagement negatively affects Ca2+ mobilization and NF-AT activation, as induced by LFA-1 engagement alone. PLCgamma1 phosphorylation was also dampened within minutes after CTLA-4 engagement. Altogether these data indicate that through the control of signals induced by different receptors, CTLA-4 could be a global attenuator of T-cell activation.

Although a large amount of information is available on the activity of CTLA-4 in T cells, the role of this receptor in B cells has not been previously characterized. Our results show that CD40 or LPS stimulation in the presence of IL-4 induces CTLA-4 expression in purified B cells; the maximum level is reached in both membrane and intracellular compartments after 48-72 h. Engagement of the B cell CTLA-4 by immobilized mAb inhibits IgG1 and IgE production and reduces the frequency of IgG1- and IgE-expressing B cells. Cepsilon and Cgamma(1) germline mRNA expression as well as NF-kappaB and STAT6 activation, events required for isotype switching, are also inhibited by CTLA-4 engagement. Together these findings show the critical role of CTLA-4 in the control of IL-4-driven isotype switching and suggest new approaches for modulating immediate-type hypersensitivity responses.