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Mapping soil organic carbon (SOC) stock can serve as a resilience indicator for climate change. As part of the carbon dioxide (CO2) sink, soil has recently become an integral part of the global carbon agenda to mitigate climate change. We used hyperspectral remote sensing to model the SOC stock in the Sele River plain located in the Campania region in southern Italy. To this end, a soil spectral library (SSL) for the Campania region was combined with an aerial hyperspectral image acquired with the AVIRIS–NG sensor mounted on a Twin Otter aircraft at an altitude of 1433 m. The products of this study were four raster layers with a high spatial resolution (1 m), representing the SOC stocks and three other related soil attributes: SOC content, clay content, and bulk density (BD). We found that the clay minerals’ spectral absorption at 2200 nm has a significant impact on predicting the examined soil attributes. The predictions were performed by using AVIRIS–NG sensor data over a selected plot and generating a quantitative map which was validated with in situ observations showing high accuracies in the ground-truth stage (OC stocks [RPIQ = 2.19, R2 = 0.72, RMSE = 0.07]; OC content [RPIQ = 2.27, R2 = 0.80, RMSE = 1.78]; clay content [RPIQ = 1.6 R2 = 0.89, RMSE = 25.42]; bulk density [RPIQ = 1.97, R2 = 0.84, RMSE = 0.08]). The results demonstrated the potential of combining SSLs with remote sensing data of high spectral/spatial resolution to estimate soil attributes, including SOC stocks.

Two pedotransfer functions (PTFs) are available in the literature enabling the soil water retention function (WRF) to be estimated from knowledge of the soil particle-size distribution (PSD), oven-dry soil bulk density (b), and saturated soil water content (s): i) the Arya and Heitman model (PTF-AH) and ii) the Mohammadi and Vanclooster model (PTF-MV). These physico-empirical PTFs rely on the hypothesis of shape similarity between PSD and WRF, and do not require the calibration of the input parameters. In the first stage, twenty-seven PSD models were evaluated using 4,128 soil samples collected in Campania (southern Italy). These models were ranked according to the root mean square residuals (RMSR), corrected Akaike Information Criterion (AICc), and adjusted coefficient of determination (R2adj). In the second stage, three subsets of PSD and WRF data (DS-1, DS-2, and DS-3), comprising 282 soil samples, were used to evaluate the two PTFs using the best three PSD models selected in the first stage. The hypothesis of shape similarity was assumed as acceptable only when the RMSR value was lower than the field standard deviation of the WRFs (*), which is viewed as a tolerance threshold and computed from the physically-based scaling approach proposed by Kosugi and Hopmans (1998). In the first study area (DS-1), characterized by a fairly uniform, loamy textured volcanic soil, the PTF-AH outperformed the PTF-MV and both PTFs provided reasonable performance within the acceptance threshold (i.e., RMSR < *). In the other two heterogeneous field sites (DS-2 and DS-3, characterized by soil textural classes that span from clay and clay-loam to loam and even sandy-loam soils), the PTF-MV (with 3% to 6% RMSR surpassing *) outperformed the PTF-AH (with 8% to 30% RMSR surpassing *) and the majority of RMSR values were larger than those obtained in the original studies. The mean relative error (MRE) revealed that the PTF-MV systematically underestimates the measured WRFs, whereas the PTF-AH provided negative MRE values indicating an overall overestimation. The outcomes of our study provide a critical evaluation when using calibration-free PTFs to predict WRFs over large areas.

The continuous monitoring of soil water content is commonly carried out using low-frequency capacitance sensors that require a site-specific calibration to relate sensor readings to apparent dielectric bulk permittivity (Kb) and soil water content (θ). In fine-textured soils, the conversion of Kb to θ is still challenging due to temperature effects on the bound water fraction associated with clay mineral surfaces, which is disregarded in factory calibrations. Here, a multi-point calibration approach accounts for temperature effects on two soils with medium to high clay content. A calibration strategy was developed using repacked soil samples in which the Kb-θ relationship was determined for temperature (T) steps from 10 to 40 °C. This approach was tested using the GS3 and TEROS-12 sensors (METER Group, Inc. Pullman, WA, USA; formerly Decagon Devices). Kb is influenced by T in both soils with contrasting T-Kb relationships. The measured data were fitted using a linear function θ = aKb + b with temperature-dependent coefficients a and b. The slope, a(T), and intercept, b(T), of the loam soil were different from the ones of the clay soil. The consideration of a temperature correction resulted in low RMSE values, ranging from 0.007 to 0.033 cm3 cm−3, which were lower than the RMSE values obtained from factory calibration (0.046 to 0.11 cm3 cm−3). However, each experiment was replicated only twice using two different sensors. Sensor-to-sensor variability effects were thus ignored in this study and will be systematically investigated in a future study. Finally, the applicability of the proposed calibration method was tested at two experimental sites. The spatial-average θ from a network of GS3 sensors based on the new calibration fairly agreed with the independent area-wide θ from the Cosmic Ray Neutron Sensor (CRNS). This study provided a temperature-corrected calibration to increase the accuracy of commercial sensors, especially under dry conditions, at two experimental sites.

In the last decades, a growing interest in fostering advanced interdisciplinary studies is leading to the establishment of observatories in pilot catchments for long-term monitoring of hydrological variables and fluxes. Nevertheless prior to sensor network installation, this investment necessitates preliminary surveys on key-variables such as near-surface soil moisture in order to prevent risks of erronously distributing sensors by missing sufficient spatial information for understanding hydrological processes within the landatmosphere interactions. The availability of maps describing areas with similar morphological, topographical, soil, and vegetation characteristics enable preliminary surveys to be organized for capturing spatio-temporal variability of soil moisture as best as possible. The soil-landscape classification can be considered as an interesting approach for grouping mapping units with similar hydrological behavior. Therefore, we assume the soil-landscape units as hydrotopes or hydrological similar units. Six transects were established along two hillsides of the Upper Alento River catchment (southern Italy) which is a proper candidate to become a Critical Zone Observatory. In this paper we use a soil-landscape map to infer spatial and temporal dynamics of soil moisture measured along these transects, whereas quantitative analyses were obtained by using multivariate techniques. The effectiveness of available information on soil-landscape mapping units is evaluated with respect to different observed patterns of soil moisture: wetter- and drier-than average observation points belong to agricultural and forested hillslopes, respectively. Soil texture and topographical controlling factors, especially clay content and slope gradient, are found to explain approximately 70% of the observed spatial variations in soil moisture along the forested hillslopes. The spatial structure explained by the environmental controlling factors decreases to 45% in the cases of the agricultural hillslopes mainly due to perturbations induced by grazing and tillage practices.