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Reasons for the damping of air-bubble curtains for underwater blasts are discussed, e.g. at a microscale level, resonant oscillations of the bubbles, which markedly increase their effective cross-section, generating multiple scattering and diffuse reflection of incoming shock-pressure waves. Unexplained malfunctioning of the air-bubble curtains attributable to the dependence of the resonant frequencies on the bubble size is described. The latter effect occurs with frequencies of above ca. 200-400 Hz and, consequently, low-frequency waves are able to traverse the air-bubble curtain. At a macroscale level, for low frequencies, an increase in compressibility of the water-air mixture is a significant factor. A 1- to 2-fold increase in compressibility produces a large reduction of propagation velocity of the pressure waves and a high reflectivity of the air-bubble curtain in the lower-frequency spectral band. A discussion of the of application of the study for the dimensioning and positioning of air-bubble curtains is provided., Reasons for the damping of air-bubble curtains for underwater blasts are discussed, e.g. at a microscale level, resonant oscillations of the bubbles, which markedly increase their effective cross-section, generating multiple scattering and diffuse reflection of incoming shock-pressure waves. Unexplained malfunctioning of the air-bubble curtains attributable to the dependence of the resonant frequencies on the bubble size is described. The latter effect occurs with frequencies of above ca. 200-400 Hz and, consequently, low-frequency waves are able to traverse the air-bubble curtain. At a macroscale level, for low frequencies, an increase in compressibility of the water-air mixture is a significant factor. A 1- to 2-fold increase in compressibility produces a large reduction of propagation velocity of the pressure waves and a high reflectivity of the air-bubble curtain in the lower-frequency spectral band. A discussion of the of application of the study for the dimensioning and positioning of air-bubble curtains is provided.

The development history and principal progress of mining methods and technologies in hard-rock mines, especially nonferrous metal mines, are reviewed. Topics discussed include in-situ stress-detection and pressure-monitoring technology having increased accuracy and reliability; sublevel open stope mining method with delayed backfilling (e.g. Hongling lead-zinc mine in China); backfilling method for total phosphorus slag; sublevel block caving method for mining pillars; intelligent and continuous mining without explosives; low-dilution mining method for large-scale under-sea metal deposits; advances in theory and technology of deep hard-rock mining; mining methods for deep resources having different depths (e.g. nonferrous precious mineral resources); and technical bottlenecks and breakthrough directions in deep mining., The development history and principal progress of mining methods and technologies in hard-rock mines, especially nonferrous metal mines, are reviewed. Topics discussed include in-situ stress-detection and pressure-monitoring technology having increased accuracy and reliability; sublevel open stope mining method with delayed backfilling (e.g. Hongling lead-zinc mine in China); backfilling method for total phosphorus slag; sublevel block caving method for mining pillars; intelligent and continuous mining without explosives; low-dilution mining method for large-scale under-sea metal deposits; advances in theory and technology of deep hard-rock mining; mining methods for deep resources having different depths (e.g. nonferrous precious mineral resources); and technical bottlenecks and breakthrough directions in deep mining.

Development of the 42-month viable alternative mine operating system (VAMOS!) project, funded by the European Commission's Horizon 2020 (H2020) programme, to study the viability of underwater extraction of metallic mineral deposits is described. The VAMOS! project involves the design and construction of a remotely operated underwater mining vehicle which, operating concurrently with an autonomous underwater vehicle, will connect to a flexible riser. Slurries of mined material will be pumped through the riser to an onshore dewatering facility via a floating mobile launch and recovery vessel. The vessel will be equipped with a bypass system connected to a laser-induced breakdown spectroscopic analyser to enable real-time grade control. The design was finalised in October 2016 and construction of the prototype components is under way. Following work on foresight visioning, economic evaluation and policy guidelines for the VAMOS! project, site tests will be conducted at two selected abandoned European mines, the acquired data will be analysed, and the final proof of operational viability will be due by July 2018., Development of the 42-month viable alternative mine operating system (VAMOS!) project, funded by the European Commission's Horizon 2020 (H2020) programme, to study the viability of underwater extraction of metallic mineral deposits is described. The VAMOS! project involves the design and construction of a remotely operated underwater mining vehicle which, operating concurrently with an autonomous underwater vehicle, will connect to a flexible riser. Slurries of mined material will be pumped through the riser to an onshore dewatering facility via a floating mobile launch and recovery vessel. The vessel will be equipped with a bypass system connected to a laser-induced breakdown spectroscopic analyser to enable real-time grade control. The design was finalised in October 2016 and construction of the prototype components is under way. Following work on foresight visioning, economic evaluation and policy guidelines for the VAMOS! project, site tests will be conducted at two selected abandoned European mines, the acquired data will be analysed, and the final proof of operational viability will be due by July 2018.

Five studies were undertaken by the CSIRO Wealth from Oceans Flagship in 2009-10 to explore the concerns, expectations, and information needs of a range of stakeholders in relation to the possible exploration and mining of minerals and aggregates from the seafloor, as well as the conditions for meaningful engagement with communities regarding seafloor exploration and mining (SEM) activities. The results indicate that both key stakeholders and community stakeholders have reservations about SEM, mainly due to concerns about likely environmental impacts and the unknowns associated with the industry. However, the potential economic and socioeconomic benefits of mining activities are seen as important. Stakeholders consider some locations as less environmentally sensitive and culturally significant than others, and therefore potentially more acceptable for SEM. Stakeholders need to feel confident that there are systems (regulatory frameworks, watchdogs, independent research, stakeholder consultation) to ensure that all interests are protected. A precautionary approach is favoured, supported by rigorous scientific analysis of the potential environmental impacts, transparent and socially responsive management processes, effective regulation, and meaningful engagement between stakeholders., Five studies were undertaken by the CSIRO Wealth from Oceans Flagship in 2009-10 to explore the concerns, expectations, and information needs of a range of stakeholders in relation to the possible exploration and mining of minerals and aggregates from the seafloor, as well as the conditions for meaningful engagement with communities regarding seafloor exploration and mining (SEM) activities. The results indicate that both key stakeholders and community stakeholders have reservations about SEM, mainly due to concerns about likely environmental impacts and the unknowns associated with the industry. However, the potential economic and socioeconomic benefits of mining activities are seen as important. Stakeholders consider some locations as less environmentally sensitive and culturally significant than others, and therefore potentially more acceptable for SEM. Stakeholders need to feel confident that there are systems (regulatory frameworks, watchdogs, independent research, stakeholder consultation) to ensure that all interests are protected. A precautionary approach is favoured, supported by rigorous scientific analysis of the potential environmental impacts, transparent and socially responsive management processes, effective regulation, and meaningful engagement between stakeholders.

Developments are reviewed in subsea oil and gas production technology with reference to applications in projects such as Plazfor, off Angola, and Bass Lite and Canyon Express in the Gulf of Mexico. Techniques which are now being employed include subsea-to-beach, a production system tied back directly to onshore facilities, and seabed processing, including gas compression, separation, boosting and water injection. Other applications described include the Snohvit and Ormen Lange projects off Norway, the Greater Gorgon complex off Western Australia, the Kudu prospect, offshore Namibia and West Delta Deep, Egypt., Developments are reviewed in subsea oil and gas production technology with reference to applications in projects such as Plazfor, off Angola, and Bass Lite and Canyon Express in the Gulf of Mexico. Techniques which are now being employed include subsea-to-beach, a production system tied back directly to onshore facilities, and seabed processing, including gas compression, separation, boosting and water injection. Other applications described include the Snohvit and Ormen Lange projects off Norway, the Greater Gorgon complex off Western Australia, the Kudu prospect, offshore Namibia and West Delta Deep, Egypt.

The aim of PACRIM 2008 was to showcase recent exploration successes in the Pacific Rim area. A total of 80 papers were presented at the congress, 4 as plenary addresses and 4 as keynote addresses; the remaining 72 papers were grouped under the headings of: Andean region and Central America (4 papers); Black smokers and seafloor mineralisation (8); Epithermal systems (6); Exploration techniques (16); Modelling fluid flow, chemical reaction and mineralisation (4); Porphyry-style mineralisation (7); Skarns and replacement deposits (6); Supergene processes and regolith characteristics (7); Timing of mineralisation (4); and West Pacific and South-East Asia (10). A number of the papers are published in the form of abstracts or extended abstracts, and 44 are linked to copies of the presentations. Among the keynote addresses was: The Kermandec Arc, New Zealand: a ten-year odyssey of discovery along the world's most hydrothermally active intraoceanic arc, by de Ronde C.E.J., Baker E.T., Lupton J.E., Embley R.W., Massoth G.J., Faure K., Leybourne M. I., Walker S.L., Greene R.R., Ishibashi J., Graham I.J., Chadwick W., Butterfield D.A., Resing J.A., Yoerer D.R., Stoffers P., Wright I.C., Hannington M.D., Merle S.G., Takai K., Arculus R., p.25-26 (abstract only), which covered seafloor surveys for hydrothermal plumes along the Kermandec Arc., The aim of PACRIM 2008 was to showcase recent exploration successes in the Pacific Rim area. A total of 80 papers were presented at the congress, 4 as plenary addresses and 4 as keynote addresses; the remaining 72 papers were grouped under the headings of: Andean region and Central America (4 papers); Black smokers and seafloor mineralisation (8); Epithermal systems (6); Exploration techniques (16); Modelling fluid flow, chemical reaction and mineralisation (4); Porphyry-style mineralisation (7); Skarns and replacement deposits (6); Supergene processes and regolith characteristics (7); Timing of mineralisation (4); and West Pacific and South-East Asia (10). A number of the papers are published in the form of abstracts or extended abstracts, and 44 are linked to copies of the presentations. Among the keynote addresses was: The Kermandec Arc, New Zealand: a ten-year odyssey of discovery along the world's most hydrothermally active intraoceanic arc, by de Ronde C.E.J., Baker E.T., Lupton J.E., Embley R.W., Massoth G.J., Faure K., Leybourne M. I., Walker S.L., Greene R.R., Ishibashi J., Graham I.J., Chadwick W., Butterfield D.A., Resing J.A., Yoerer D.R., Stoffers P., Wright I.C., Hannington M.D., Merle S.G., Takai K., Arculus R., p.25-26 (abstract only), which covered seafloor surveys for hydrothermal plumes along the Kermandec Arc.

The telerobotics laboratory of Canada's Laurentian University is developing an optical control system for use in submarine exploration and mining. The paper describes its current research into the development of a high-bandwidth optical communication system using LED-based omni- directional transceivers, including field testing in a floating laboratory in a lake near Sudbury., The telerobotics laboratory of Canada's Laurentian University is developing an optical control system for use in submarine exploration and mining. The paper describes its current research into the development of a high-bandwidth optical communication system using LED-based omni- directional transceivers, including field testing in a floating laboratory in a lake near Sudbury.

Nautilus Minerals is only one of three commercial companies actively exploring seafloor massive sulphide (SMS) deposits, and its flagship deposit is the Solwara I project in the Manus basin off the eastern coast of Papua New Guinea. There the combined indicated and inferred resources, according to NI43-101 specifications, are 2 170 000 tonnes at 7.2% copper, 0.6% zinc, 31 g/t silver and 6.2 g/t gold. Mining is scheduled to start in 2010 provided the necessary permits are received. The current status of undersea minerals exploration is briefly reviewed in the abstract, and some of the relevant mining and environmental factors are considered in the presentation., Nautilus Minerals is only one of three commercial companies actively exploring seafloor massive sulphide (SMS) deposits, and its flagship deposit is the Solwara I project in the Manus basin off the eastern coast of Papua New Guinea. There the combined indicated and inferred resources, according to NI43-101 specifications, are 2 170 000 tonnes at 7.2% copper, 0.6% zinc, 31 g/t silver and 6.2 g/t gold. Mining is scheduled to start in 2010 provided the necessary permits are received. The current status of undersea minerals exploration is briefly reviewed in the abstract, and some of the relevant mining and environmental factors are considered in the presentation.

The session on Black smokers and seafloor mineralisation covered the exploration, geology, mineralogy, evaluation, and remote mining of offshore deposits, together with a review of some of the implications for their sustainable development. Among the 8 papers are: The PACMANUS seafloor sulphide field, Eastern Manus Basin, Papua New Guinea, by Binns R.A., Parr J.M., Yeats C.J., p.73-78, 9 refs.; Japanese activities in exploring and evaluating seafloor massive sulphides, by Iizasa K., p.91- 93, 3 refs.; Social viability of an expanded seafloor exploration and mining industry in Australia, by Parr J.M., Boughen N., Johns S., Littleboy A., Yeats C.J., Ashworth P., p.95-100 + 22pp. presentation, 8 refs.; and Exploration and resource estimation 1 500 m under the sea, by Richmond A., Lipton I., Riley C., Davies N., Carpenter J., p.101-102 (extended abstract), on the SOLWARA 1 deposit., The session on Black smokers and seafloor mineralisation covered the exploration, geology, mineralogy, evaluation, and remote mining of offshore deposits, together with a review of some of the implications for their sustainable development. Among the 8 papers are: The PACMANUS seafloor sulphide field, Eastern Manus Basin, Papua New Guinea, by Binns R.A., Parr J.M., Yeats C.J., p.73-78, 9 refs.; Japanese activities in exploring and evaluating seafloor massive sulphides, by Iizasa K., p.91- 93, 3 refs.; Social viability of an expanded seafloor exploration and mining industry in Australia, by Parr J.M., Boughen N., Johns S., Littleboy A., Yeats C.J., Ashworth P., p.95-100 + 22pp. presentation, 8 refs.; and Exploration and resource estimation 1 500 m under the sea, by Richmond A., Lipton I., Riley C., Davies N., Carpenter J., p.101-102 (extended abstract), on the SOLWARA 1 deposit.

The areas around seafloor massive sulphide (SMS) deposits generally contain large chemosynthetic communities. The ecosystems of these deposits have yet to be assessed, either on a macro-scale or quantitatively. Mining the deposits will require both an environmental baseline survey and an environmental assessment. A systematic approach and plan for baseline survey is presented, together with the basic studies for an environmental assessment., The areas around seafloor massive sulphide (SMS) deposits generally contain large chemosynthetic communities. The ecosystems of these deposits have yet to be assessed, either on a macro-scale or quantitatively. Mining the deposits will require both an environmental baseline survey and an environmental assessment. A systematic approach and plan for baseline survey is presented, together with the basic studies for an environmental assessment.

In-situ investigations into the behaviour of strata above undersea workings using boreholes is expensive and time-consuming and it is therefore advantageous to supplement with experiments on physical models. The mining method at the Kozlu coal mine, mined under the Black Sea since 1956 by the longwall method with stowing, has changed to caving and the possibility of seawater inrush needs to be reconsidered. The development of induced subsurface fractures and the overall behaviour of the strata in the mine were investigated by means of scaled models constructed from synthetic rock materials at the University of Newcastle upon Tyne. Some of the information derived from the models is used to assess the possiblity of water problems developing in the mine., In-situ investigations into the behaviour of strata above undersea workings using boreholes is expensive and time-consuming and it is therefore advantageous to supplement with experiments on physical models. The mining method at the Kozlu coal mine, mined under the Black Sea since 1956 by the longwall method with stowing, has changed to caving and the possibility of seawater inrush needs to be reconsidered. The development of induced subsurface fractures and the overall behaviour of the strata in the mine were investigated by means of scaled models constructed from synthetic rock materials at the University of Newcastle upon Tyne. Some of the information derived from the models is used to assess the possiblity of water problems developing in the mine.

The pushback of the southern wall of the open pit in British Columbia extends the pit wall into Rupert Inlet with the natural ground surface being about 100 ft below sea level; the pit will eventually reach 1 300 ft below sea level. To prevent an inrush of seawater through the waste dump, previously established in Rupert Inlet, and underlying sediments, a seepage control barrier wall was constructed through these permeable materials and keyed into the underlying tills and sediments. Design issues included seepage, pore pressures, dewatering deformation, deformation along a major fault, and elastic deformation due to unloading. Analyses were conducted to predict expected conditions. The design and construction phase of the project and the performance of the wall at about midway through its design life are reviewed., The pushback of the southern wall of the open pit in British Columbia extends the pit wall into Rupert Inlet with the natural ground surface being about 100 ft below sea level; the pit will eventually reach 1 300 ft below sea level. To prevent an inrush of seawater through the waste dump, previously established in Rupert Inlet, and underlying sediments, a seepage control barrier wall was constructed through these permeable materials and keyed into the underlying tills and sediments. Design issues included seepage, pore pressures, dewatering deformation, deformation along a major fault, and elastic deformation due to unloading. Analyses were conducted to predict expected conditions. The design and construction phase of the project and the performance of the wall at about midway through its design life are reviewed.

Over 11% of the UK's deep mined output is extracted from beneath the North Sea. The Directives and Regulations governing the safe working are discussed together with the latest methods of locating potential hazards and the subsequent effect on mine layouts. As all the shafts and services are located on the coast and with workings moving further east, there are continually increasing logistical problems in ventilation, coal transport, manriding and materials transport, pumping, power distribution and exploration., Over 11% of the UK's deep mined output is extracted from beneath the North Sea. The Directives and Regulations governing the safe working are discussed together with the latest methods of locating potential hazards and the subsequent effect on mine layouts. As all the shafts and services are located on the coast and with workings moving further east, there are continually increasing logistical problems in ventilation, coal transport, manriding and materials transport, pumping, power distribution and exploration.

Located on the coast at Pendeen, in west Cornwall, the Geevor tin mine has turned out to be the "star" amongst the mines of the St. Just mining district and throughout its career has proved highly profitable. In order to continue working of the mine, it was realised that the working area must be considerably extended. As a temporary measure the old Boscaswell Downs mine, adjoining Geevor on the north-east, was taken over and rehabilitated and much of the recent production has come from this area. However, it was observed that continued prosperity lay on the south and west, developing towards Levant and so opening up the rich undersea lodes of that mine and the seaward extensions of Geevor's own lodes. To date, a sub-incline shaft links Geevor underground with the deep workings of the Levant and a programme of development is underway. The history of mining in the area from the mine's primitive beginnings in the nineteenth century is reported. Production figres are quoted and a short bibliography and index are included., Located on the coast at Pendeen, in west Cornwall, the Geevor tin mine has turned out to be the "star" amongst the mines of the St. Just mining district and throughout its career has proved highly profitable. In order to continue working of the mine, it was realised that the working area must be considerably extended. As a temporary measure the old Boscaswell Downs mine, adjoining Geevor on the north-east, was taken over and rehabilitated and much of the recent production has come from this area. However, it was observed that continued prosperity lay on the south and west, developing towards Levant and so opening up the rich undersea lodes of that mine and the seaward extensions of Geevor's own lodes. To date, a sub-incline shaft links Geevor underground with the deep workings of the Levant and a programme of development is underway. The history of mining in the area from the mine's primitive beginnings in the nineteenth century is reported. Production figres are quoted and a short bibliography and index are included.

The programme was set up in 1983 to draw together pre-existing work programmes functioning within the College and to establish new ones. Reports are presented of projects on mineral exploration within Exclusive Economic Zones, undersea mining of continental shelf reserves, and development of criteria for predicting manganese nodule grade and abundance on the deep sea floor. The exploration project involves studies off Sounion, Macedonia, and Santorini, all in Greece, and Cornwall, in the UK, to develop geochemical exploration methods for undersea mineralisation in areas of contamination from mines on land, placer deposits, hydrothermal mineralisation, and lode deposits. The undersea mining project has looked at solutions from the UK, Canada, and Japan in fields such as haulage, artificial islands, sea-floor production units, and alternative mining methods., The programme was set up in 1983 to draw together pre-existing work programmes functioning within the College and to establish new ones. Reports are presented of projects on mineral exploration within Exclusive Economic Zones, undersea mining of continental shelf reserves, and development of criteria for predicting manganese nodule grade and abundance on the deep sea floor. The exploration project involves studies off Sounion, Macedonia, and Santorini, all in Greece, and Cornwall, in the UK, to develop geochemical exploration methods for undersea mineralisation in areas of contamination from mines on land, placer deposits, hydrothermal mineralisation, and lode deposits. The undersea mining project has looked at solutions from the UK, Canada, and Japan in fields such as haulage, artificial islands, sea-floor production units, and alternative mining methods.

Faults in the orebody hanging wall in the SW Xinli mining zone of the Sanshandao undersea gold mine in Shandong, China, are disturbed to varying degrees by high-intensity mining activity, which may lead to local activation and instability problems. The principles of elastic mechanics and minimum potential energy were used as a basis for deriving a mechanical model of anchored fault-plane activation. Bolt cross-sectional stress meters and single-point extensometers were used to monitor the variations in fault stress and displacement, and the data combined in a comprehensive analysis of the fault's stability which showed that it was not activated at the monitoring point. The results provide a theoretical basis and technical reference for the evalution and treatment of other fracture zones in the region., 12 refs., Faults in the orebody hanging wall in the SW Xinli mining zone of the Sanshandao undersea gold mine in Shandong, China, are disturbed to varying degrees by high-intensity mining activity, which may lead to local activation and instability problems. The principles of elastic mechanics and minimum potential energy were used as a basis for deriving a mechanical model of anchored fault-plane activation. Bolt cross-sectional stress meters and single-point extensometers were used to monitor the variations in fault stress and displacement, and the data combined in a comprehensive analysis of the fault's stability which showed that it was not activated at the monitoring point. The results provide a theoretical basis and technical reference for the evalution and treatment of other fracture zones in the region.

First, an index system for subsea mining method selection was established based on technical feasibility, security status, economic benefit, and management complexity. Next, an evaluation matrix containing crisp numbers and triangular fuzzy numbers (TFNs) was constructed to describe quantitative and qualitative information simultaneously. Then, a hybrid model combining fuzzy theory and the Tomada de Decisão Interativa Multicritério (TODIM) method was proposed. Finally, the feasibility of the proposed approach was validated by an illustrative example of selecting the optimal mining method in the Sanshandao Gold Mine (China). The robustness of this approach was demonstrated through a sensitivity analysis. The results show that the proposed hybrid TODIM method is reliable and stable for choosing the optimal mining method in subsea deep gold mines and provides references for mining method optimisation in other similar undersea mines., First, an index system for subsea mining method selection was established based on technical feasibility, security status, economic benefit, and management complexity. Next, an evaluation matrix containing crisp numbers and triangular fuzzy numbers (TFNs) was constructed to describe quantitative and qualitative information simultaneously. Then, a hybrid model combining fuzzy theory and the Tomada de Decisão Interativa Multicritério (TODIM) method was proposed. Finally, the feasibility of the proposed approach was validated by an illustrative example of selecting the optimal mining method in the Sanshandao Gold Mine (China). The robustness of this approach was demonstrated through a sensitivity analysis. The results show that the proposed hybrid TODIM method is reliable and stable for choosing the optimal mining method in subsea deep gold mines and provides references for mining method optimisation in other similar undersea mines.

Severe water seepage into mining areas, rugged orebody footwall characteristics, and highly variable resource grades all contribute to a challenging operational environment at the Southern Coastal Mine (SMC) diamond placer mine in Namibia. Mining targets gravel layers up to 30 m below sea level, which dip deeper westwards under the Atlantic Ocean. The Theory of Constraints (ToC) process was used to identify bottlenecks at various stages throughout mining. Improvements were carried out which included a reduction in circuit distances, increase in payload, additional support equipment, the addition of an extra excavator and truck to cover equipment downtime, beach nourishment, increasing backshift bulking, removing slow cleaning areas, increased hydraulic hammer capacity, and improved siting of the tipping bin stockpile. These solutions have greatly improved productivity and, in the case of beach nourishment, reduced the risk of a storm breaching the seawall defences. ToC will be applied continuously to define new bottlenecks and improve productivity., Severe water seepage into mining areas, rugged orebody footwall characteristics, and highly variable resource grades all contribute to a challenging operational environment at the Southern Coastal Mine (SMC) diamond placer mine in Namibia. Mining targets gravel layers up to 30 m below sea level, which dip deeper westwards under the Atlantic Ocean. The Theory of Constraints (ToC) process was used to identify bottlenecks at various stages throughout mining. Improvements were carried out which included a reduction in circuit distances, increase in payload, additional support equipment, the addition of an extra excavator and truck to cover equipment downtime, beach nourishment, increasing backshift bulking, removing slow cleaning areas, increased hydraulic hammer capacity, and improved siting of the tipping bin stockpile. These solutions have greatly improved productivity and, in the case of beach nourishment, reduced the risk of a storm breaching the seawall defences. ToC will be applied continuously to define new bottlenecks and improve productivity.

The EU VAMOS underwater mining project has developed a prototype system which includes a remotely controlled mining vehicle, piloted using VR techniques from the shore, equipped with sensors to assess ore grade. The vehicle is launched from a floating support vessel, and the extracted material is pumped directly from the pit to a land-based pre-processing dewatering plant. The system has low environmental impacts, with greatly reduced noise, vibration, dust, and energy use, and increased safety. Full-scale field trials will be carried out at flooded, disused mines at Lee Moor, Devon, UK, and Vares, Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Lee Moor site is a flooded kaolin mine which ceased operation in 2008. A bathymetric survey has been carried out and a safe working area has been developed to bring in the equipment and system components. A slurry depot has been created to capture the material being pumped up. Pontoons for the launch and recovery vessel have been assembled and the mining vehicle (MV) is in the final stage of its factory acceptance testing. When the MV is on site the positioning, navigation and awareness systems will be integrated and the full system can be commissioned., The EU VAMOS underwater mining project has developed a prototype system which includes a remotely controlled mining vehicle, piloted using VR techniques from the shore, equipped with sensors to assess ore grade. The vehicle is launched from a floating support vessel, and the extracted material is pumped directly from the pit to a land-based pre-processing dewatering plant. The system has low environmental impacts, with greatly reduced noise, vibration, dust, and energy use, and increased safety. Full-scale field trials will be carried out at flooded, disused mines at Lee Moor, Devon, UK, and Vares, Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Lee Moor site is a flooded kaolin mine which ceased operation in 2008. A bathymetric survey has been carried out and a safe working area has been developed to bring in the equipment and system components. A slurry depot has been created to capture the material being pumped up. Pontoons for the launch and recovery vessel have been assembled and the mining vehicle (MV) is in the final stage of its factory acceptance testing. When the MV is on site the positioning, navigation and awareness systems will be integrated and the full system can be commissioned.

In order to achieve safe mining in Sanshandao Gold Mine, five schemes of secure pillar group are designed. Using the method of the renormalisation group, the failure mechanism of the pillar group is explored, and the safety factor of the pillar system is also obtained. The displacement characteristics, stress-strain laws, distribution of plastic zone and damage range of different pillar group are analysed using numerical calculation software FLAC3D. To determine a reasonable pillar group scheme, the pillar stability and roof deformation are utilised to evaluate the safety of the pillar group. In addition, the theory of fuzzy comprehensive evaluation is adopted to verify the optimal scheme. The pillar group with the lowest roof deformation value is chosen as the optimal plan, which renders a factor of safety of 2.06 for the pillar group. According to this scheme, pillars with the width of 10 m are set along the strike of undersea deposit with the interval of 50 m. Rib pillars of 15 m in width are set at the location of the exploration line of 127, 151 and 167. The analysis can be used to provide guidance for optimal design of pillar structures in undersea mining. (Authors.), In order to achieve safe mining in Sanshandao Gold Mine, five schemes of secure pillar group are designed. Using the method of the renormalisation group, the failure mechanism of the pillar group is explored, and the safety factor of the pillar system is also obtained. The displacement characteristics, stress-strain laws, distribution of plastic zone and damage range of different pillar group are analysed using numerical calculation software FLAC3D. To determine a reasonable pillar group scheme, the pillar stability and roof deformation are utilised to evaluate the safety of the pillar group. In addition, the theory of fuzzy comprehensive evaluation is adopted to verify the optimal scheme. The pillar group with the lowest roof deformation value is chosen as the optimal plan, which renders a factor of safety of 2.06 for the pillar group. According to this scheme, pillars with the width of 10 m are set along the strike of undersea deposit with the interval of 50 m. Rib pillars of 15 m in width are set at the location of the exploration line of 127, 151 and 167. The analysis can be used to provide guidance for optimal design of pillar structures in undersea mining. (Authors.)

The recovery of oil and gas from offshore subsea reservoirs requires the use of a wide range of various chemicals to enhance drilling performance, promote chemical production and the separation of oil or gas, protect equipment from corrosion and maintain safety. The application of offshore chemicals can result in operational discharges during drilling, well cleaning and preparation and the separation of oil/gas condensate from water in the reservoirs. The main objective of the Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic, known as OSPAR, was to provide a robust regulatory framework to ensure an adequate level of protection, and the Harmonised Mandatory Control Systems (HMCS) scheme was developed to protect the marine environment by promoting the use of less- or non-hazardous substances. A review conducted in 2015 showed that more than 91% of the discharge in the UK Continental Shelf was from corrosion inhibitor, scale inhibitor, demulsifier and water clarifier formulations, with corrosion inhibitors making the largest contribution to substitutable substance discharges. Discharges of substitutable scale inhibitor substances decreased steadily over the period 2000-2012, while those of corrosion inhibitors have remained fairly constant since 2007. In the UK and the Netherlands the requirements of HMCS are incorporated in the Offshore Chemical Notification Scheme, which identifies chemical hazards and potential impacts to the marine environment. The hazard pre-screening and ranking of chemicals is based on ecotoxicological information on the persistence, bioaccumulation and toxicity characteristics of the chemical constituents of offshore products. The European Union's REACH (Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals) regulation contains no provisions for the discharge of chemicals in the offshore environment, but by 2018 all chemical substances used offshore will need to be registered under REACH., The recovery of oil and gas from offshore subsea reservoirs requires the use of a wide range of various chemicals to enhance drilling performance, promote chemical production and the separation of oil or gas, protect equipment from corrosion and maintain safety. The application of offshore chemicals can result in operational discharges during drilling, well cleaning and preparation and the separation of oil/gas condensate from water in the reservoirs. The main objective of the Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic, known as OSPAR, was to provide a robust regulatory framework to ensure an adequate level of protection, and the Harmonised Mandatory Control Systems (HMCS) scheme was developed to protect the marine environment by promoting the use of less- or non-hazardous substances. A review conducted in 2015 showed that more than 91% of the discharge in the UK Continental Shelf was from corrosion inhibitor, scale inhibitor, demulsifier and water clarifier formulations, with corrosion inhibitors making the largest contribution to substitutable substance discharges. Discharges of substitutable scale inhibitor substances decreased steadily over the period 2000-2012, while those of corrosion inhibitors have remained fairly constant since 2007. In the UK and the Netherlands the requirements of HMCS are incorporated in the Offshore Chemical Notification Scheme, which identifies chemical hazards and potential impacts to the marine environment. The hazard pre-screening and ranking of chemicals is based on ecotoxicological information on the persistence, bioaccumulation and toxicity characteristics of the chemical constituents of offshore products. The European Union's REACH (Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals) regulation contains no provisions for the discharge of chemicals in the offshore environment, but by 2018 all chemical substances used offshore will need to be registered under REACH.

Exploitation of new coal reserves on Cape Breton Island, has involved the use of a full face TBM to develop the vast coal deposit extending out under the Atlantic Ocean. The deposit dips in a 7-8% declining wedge and 3.5 km long drifts are being driven to intersect with seams some 200m below sea level and 150m beneath the sea bed. The TBM is a fully shielded, open face machine equipped with interchangeable roller disc cutters and carbide ripper teeth, enabling it to excavate in both hard and soft ground. Mucking out is via conveyors. Records show that progress rates are up to 3 to 4 times faster than drilling and blasting, and require one third of the manpower., Exploitation of new coal reserves on Cape Breton Island, has involved the use of a full face TBM to develop the vast coal deposit extending out under the Atlantic Ocean. The deposit dips in a 7-8% declining wedge and 3.5 km long drifts are being driven to intersect with seams some 200m below sea level and 150m beneath the sea bed. The TBM is a fully shielded, open face machine equipped with interchangeable roller disc cutters and carbide ripper teeth, enabling it to excavate in both hard and soft ground. Mucking out is via conveyors. Records show that progress rates are up to 3 to 4 times faster than drilling and blasting, and require one third of the manpower.

The water yield-predicted tensile strain and geological strain-water relationship occurring at four collieries with extensive undersea workings: Blackhall, Horder, Dawdon and Westoe, is examined. The water occurrences can be correlated with either faces worked in the vicinity of a major fault, areas where the amount of cover to the base of the major aquifer horizon thins appreciably or the existence of a potentially water bearing sandstone horizon within the intervening Coal Measures strata., The water yield-predicted tensile strain and geological strain-water relationship occurring at four collieries with extensive undersea workings: Blackhall, Horder, Dawdon and Westoe, is examined. The water occurrences can be correlated with either faces worked in the vicinity of a major fault, areas where the amount of cover to the base of the major aquifer horizon thins appreciably or the existence of a potentially water bearing sandstone horizon within the intervening Coal Measures strata.

Extension of the Victory Sub-incline shaft of Geevor Tin Mines plc, Cornwall, will add a linear 670 m to the 1:4 inclined shaft beyond the 19 level to exploit lodes beneath the Atlantic Ocean. A Perard Torque Tension TOR6 Trakheader, which combines drilling, bucket load-out, and feeder-conveyor functions, is advancing at two 2.4m rounds/day. After completion of the shaft a further incline will be driven from the Geevor plant area to the Allen's shaft in the Botallack mine area for exploration of undersea extensions of five lodes of the Wheal Owles and Wheal Edward systems. Proven reserves total 492 522 tonnes grading 0.75% tin. The steeply dipping narrow lodes are mined by overhand shrinkage stoping., Extension of the Victory Sub-incline shaft of Geevor Tin Mines plc, Cornwall, will add a linear 670 m to the 1:4 inclined shaft beyond the 19 level to exploit lodes beneath the Atlantic Ocean. A Perard Torque Tension TOR6 Trakheader, which combines drilling, bucket load-out, and feeder-conveyor functions, is advancing at two 2.4m rounds/day. After completion of the shaft a further incline will be driven from the Geevor plant area to the Allen's shaft in the Botallack mine area for exploration of undersea extensions of five lodes of the Wheal Owles and Wheal Edward systems. Proven reserves total 492 522 tonnes grading 0.75% tin. The steeply dipping narrow lodes are mined by overhand shrinkage stoping.

Improvements in rates of penetration for shaft drilling and tunnel boring techniques and good development planning decrease the time margin for development to production between an underground approach and surface platform. The concept is described in terms of shaft, shaft bottom area and tunnel design with attention on the safety and ventilation of the project. The drilling sites will be located between paired tunnels, one tunnel acting as intake and the other as exhaust. Costs for developing an oil field with underground methods are estimated., Improvements in rates of penetration for shaft drilling and tunnel boring techniques and good development planning decrease the time margin for development to production between an underground approach and surface platform. The concept is described in terms of shaft, shaft bottom area and tunnel design with attention on the safety and ventilation of the project. The drilling sites will be located between paired tunnels, one tunnel acting as intake and the other as exhaust. Costs for developing an oil field with underground methods are estimated.

The role is described of the International Seabed Authority through which states organise and control activities in areas outside national jurisdiction. The main functions are to adopt rules, regulations and procedures for activities in these areas (the mining code), promote and encourage scientific research and protect and conserve the flora and fauna of the marine environment. The regulations covering polymetallic nodules, polymetallic sulphides and Co-rich crusts are described. Activities of the authority in relation to administration of deep resources and the issuing of licences are reviewed., The role is described of the International Seabed Authority through which states organise and control activities in areas outside national jurisdiction. The main functions are to adopt rules, regulations and procedures for activities in these areas (the mining code), promote and encourage scientific research and protect and conserve the flora and fauna of the marine environment. The regulations covering polymetallic nodules, polymetallic sulphides and Co-rich crusts are described. Activities of the authority in relation to administration of deep resources and the issuing of licences are reviewed.

The treatment of mining in international conventions is discussed with particular emphasis on multilateral environmental agreements. Mining regimes in areas outside national jurisdictions such as outer space, Antarctica and the seabed are considered. International law on sustainable development is reviewed and the principles, challenges, relevance and applicability of sustainability in mining are discussed., The treatment of mining in international conventions is discussed with particular emphasis on multilateral environmental agreements. Mining regimes in areas outside national jurisdictions such as outer space, Antarctica and the seabed are considered. International law on sustainable development is reviewed and the principles, challenges, relevance and applicability of sustainability in mining are discussed.

The necessity, feasibility and economic rationality are considered of the development of dredging technology for the exploitation of Hainan's offshore Ti-Zr mineral sand deposits., The necessity, feasibility and economic rationality are considered of the development of dredging technology for the exploitation of Hainan's offshore Ti-Zr mineral sand deposits.

Developments are reviewed in the use of reservoir fracturing to increase hydrocarbon output. Fracture fluids include diesel, water and densified single-salt brine. Proppants based on white sand, resin-coated brown sand and synthetic bauxite-silica ceramics are described. A fibre technology has been developed for thick, low-permeability sands in which a synthetic fibre transports the proppant and then rots away. Future applications for fracture stimulation are discussed, particularly for coal-bed methane., Developments are reviewed in the use of reservoir fracturing to increase hydrocarbon output. Fracture fluids include diesel, water and densified single-salt brine. Proppants based on white sand, resin-coated brown sand and synthetic bauxite-silica ceramics are described. A fibre technology has been developed for thick, low-permeability sands in which a synthetic fibre transports the proppant and then rots away. Future applications for fracture stimulation are discussed, particularly for coal-bed methane.