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The innate immune system is the first player involved in the recognition/interaction with nanomaterials. Still, it is not the only system involved. The co-evolution of the microbiota with the innate immune system built an interdependence regulating immune homeostasis that is poorly studied. Herein, the simultaneous interaction of iron-oxide nanoparticles (Fe-oxide NPs), immune cells, and the microbiota associated with the blood of the sea urchin Paracentrotus lividus was explored by using a microbiota/immune cell model in vitro-ex vivo and a battery of complementary tools, including Raman spectroscopy, 16S Next-Generation Sequencing, high-content imaging, NanoString nCounter. Our findings highlight the P. lividus immune cells and microbiota dynamics in response to Fe-oxide NPs, including i) morphological rearrangement and immune cell health status maintenance (intracellular trafficking increasing, no phenotypic alterations or caspase 3/7 activation), ii) transcriptomic reprogramming in immune cells (Smad6, Lmo2, Univin, suPaxB, Frizzled-7, Fgfr2, Gp96 upregulation), iii) immune signaling unchanged (e.g., P-p38 MAPK, P-ERK, TLR4, IL-6 protein level unchanged), iv) enrichment in extracellular vesicle released in the co-culture medium, and v) a shift in the composition of microbial groups mainly in favor of Gram-positive bacteria (e.g., Firmicutes, Actinobacteria),. Our findings suggest that Fe-oxide NPs induce a multi-level immune cell-microbiota response restoring homeostasis., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest The authors declare the following financial interests/personal relationships which may be considered as potential competing interests. Pinsino Annalisa reports financial support was provided by European Union (Next-generation EU). Scalese Silvia reports financial support was provided by European Union (Next-generation EU). If there are other authors, they declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2024 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Bacterial biofilms are complex multicellular communities that adhere firmly to solid surfaces. They are widely recognized as major threats to human health, contributing to issues such as persistent infections on medical implants and severe contamination in drinking water systems. As a potential treatment for biofilms, this work proposes two strategies: (i) light-driven ZnFe 2 O 4 (ZFO)/Pt microrobots for photodegradation of biofilms and (ii) magnetically driven ZFO microrobots for mechanical removal of biofilms from surfaces. Magnetically driven ZFO microrobots were realized by synthesizing ZFO microspheres through a low-cost and large-scale hydrothermal synthesis, followed by a calcination process. Then, a Pt layer was deposited on the surface of the ZFO microspheres to break their symmetry, resulting in self-propelled light-driven Janus ZFO/Pt microrobots. Light-driven ZFO/Pt microrobots exhibited active locomotion under UV light irradiation and controllable motion in terms of "stop and go" features. Magnetically driven ZFO microrobots were capable of maneuvering precisely when subjected to an external rotating magnetic field. These microrobots could eliminate Gram-negative Escherichia coli ( E. coli ) biofilms through photogenerated reactive oxygen species (ROS)-related antibacterial properties in combination with their light-powered active locomotion, accelerating the mass transfer to remove biofilms more effectively in water. Moreover, the actuation of magnetically driven ZFO microrobots allowed for the physical disruption of biofilms, which represents a reliable alternative to photocatalysis for the removal of strongly anchored biofilms in confined spaces. With their versatile characteristics, the envisioned microrobots highlight a significant potential for biofilm removal with high efficacy in both open and confined spaces, such as the pipelines of industrial plants.

The forefront of micro- and nanorobot research involves the development of smart swimming micromachines emulating the complexity of natural systems, such as the swarming and collective behaviors typically observed in animals and microorganisms, for efficient task execution. This study introduces magnetically controlled microrobots that possess polymeric sequestrant "hands" decorating a magnetic core. Under the influence of external magnetic fields, the functionalized magnetic beads dynamically self-assemble from individual microparticles into well-defined rotating planes of diverse dimensions, allowing modulation of their propulsion speed, and exhibiting a collective motion. These mobile microrobotic swarms can actively capture free-swimming bacteria and dispersed microplastics "on-the-fly", thereby cleaning aquatic environments. Unlike conventional methods, these microrobots can be collected from the complex media and can release the captured contaminants in a second vessel in a controllable manner, that is, using ultrasound, offering a sustainable solution for repeated use in decontamination processes. Additionally, the residual water is subjected to UV irradiation to eliminate any remaining bacteria, providing a comprehensive cleaning solution. In summary, this study shows a swarming microrobot design for water decontamination processes.

The development of artificial small-scale robotic swarms with nature-mimicking collective behaviors represents the frontier of research in robotics. While microrobot swarming under magnetic manipulation has been extensively explored, light-induced self-organization of micro- and nanorobots is still challenging. This study demonstrates the interaction-controlled, reconfigurable, reversible, and active self-assembly of TiO 2 /α-Fe 2 O 3 microrobots, consisting of peanut-shaped α-Fe 2 O 3 (hematite) microparticles synthesized by a hydrothermal method and covered with a thin layer of TiO 2 by atomic layer deposition (ALD). Due to their photocatalytic and ferromagnetic properties, microrobots autonomously move in water under light irradiation, while a magnetic field precisely controls their direction. In the presence of H 2 O 2 fuel, concentration gradients around the illuminated microrobots result in mutual attraction by phoretic interactions, inducing their spontaneous organization into self-propelled clusters. In the dark, clusters reversibly reconfigure into microchains where microrobots are aligned due to magnetic dipole-dipole interactions. Microrobots' active motion and photocatalytic properties were investigated for water remediation from pesticides, obtaining the rapid degradation of the extensively used, persistent, and hazardous herbicide 2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4D). This study potentially impacts the realization of future intelligent adaptive metamachines and the application of light-powered self-propelled micro- and nanomotors toward the degradation of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) or micro- and nanoplastics., (© 2023. The Author(s).)

Prostate cancer is the most commonly diagnosed tumor disease in men, and its treatment is still a big challenge in standard oncology therapy. Magnetically actuated microrobots represent the most promising technology in modern nanomedicine, offering the advantage of wireless guidance, effective cell penetration, and non-invasive actuation. Here, new biodegradable magnetically actuated zinc/cystine-based microrobots for in situ treatment of prostate cancer cells are reported. The microrobots are fabricated via metal-ion-mediated self-assembly of the amino acid cystine encapsulating superparamagnetic Fe 3 O 4 nanoparticles (NPs) during the synthesis, which allows their precise manipulation by a rotating magnetic field. Inside the cells, the typical enzymatic reducing environment favors the disassembly of the aminoacidic chemical structure due to the cleavage of cystine disulfide bonds and disruption of non-covalent interactions with the metal ions, as demonstrated by in vitro experiments with reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH). In this way, the cystine microrobots served for site-specific delivery of Zn 2+ ions responsible for tumor cell killing via a "Trojan horse effect". This work presents a new concept of cell internalization exploiting robotic systems' self-degradation, proposing a step forward in non-invasive cancer therapy., (© 2023 The Authors. Small published by Wiley-VCH GmbH.)

Magnetic nanorobots offer wireless navigation capability in hard-to-reach areas of the human body for targeted therapy and diagnosis. Though in vivo imaging is required for guidance of the magnetic nanorobots toward the target areas, most of the imaging techniques are inadequate to reveal the potential locomotion routes. This work proposes the use of radiopaque magnetic nanorobots along with microcomputed tomography (microCT) for localized in vivo imaging applications. The nanorobots consist of a contrast agent, barium sulfate (BaSO 4 ), magnetized by the decoration of magnetite (Fe 3 O 4 ) particles. The magnetic features lead to actuation under rotating magnetic fields and enable precise navigation in a microfluidic channel used to simulate confined spaces of the body. In this channel, the intrinsic radiopacity of the nanorobots also provides the possibility to reveal the internal structures by X-ray contrast. Furthermore, in vitro analysis indicates nontoxicity of the nanorobots. In vivo experiments demonstrate localization of the nanorobots in a specific part of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract upon the influence of the magnetic field, indicating the efficient control even in the presence of natural peristaltic movements. The nanorobots reported here highlight that smart nanorobotic contrast agents can improve the current imaging-based diagnosis techniques by providing untethered controllability in vivo., (© 2022 Wiley-VCH GmbH.)

Less than 1% of Earth's freshwater reserves is accessible. Industrialization, population growth and climate change are further exacerbating clean water shortage. Current water-remediation treatments fail to remove most pollutants completely or release toxic by-products into the environment. The use of self-propelled programmable micro- and nanoscale synthetic robots is a promising alternative way to improve water monitoring and remediation by overcoming diffusion-limited reactions and promoting interactions with target pollutants, including nano- and microplastics, persistent organic pollutants, heavy metals, oils and pathogenic microorganisms. This Review introduces the evolution of passive micro- and nanomaterials through active micro- and nanomotors and into advanced intelligent micro- and nanorobots in terms of motion ability, multifunctionality, adaptive response, swarming and mutual communication. After describing removal and degradation strategies, we present the most relevant improvements in water treatment, highlighting the design aspects necessary to improve remediation efficiency for specific contaminants. Finally, open challenges and future directions are discussed for the real-world application of smart micro- and nanorobots., Competing Interests: Competing interestsThe authors declare no competing interests., (© Springer Nature Limited 2023, Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.)

Antibiotics are antimicrobial substances that can be used for preventive and therapeutic purposes in humans and animals. Their overdose usage has led to uncontrolled release to the environment, contributing significantly to the development of antimicrobial resistance phenomena. Here, enzyme-immobilized self-propelled zinc oxide (ZnO) microrobots are proposed to effectively target and degrade the released antibiotics in water bodies. Specifically, the morphology of the microrobots is tailored via the incorporation of Au during the synthetic process to lead the light-controlled motion into having on/off switching abilities. The microrobots are further modified with laccase enzyme by physical adsorption, and the immobilization process is confirmed by enzymatic activity measurements. Oxytetracycline (OTC) is used as a model of veterinary antibiotics to investigate the enzyme-immobilized microrobots for their removal capacities. The results demonstrate that the presence of laccase on the microrobot surfaces can enhance the removal of antibiotics via oxidation. This concept for immobilizing enzymes on self-propelled light-driven microrobots leads to the effective removal of the released antibiotics from water bodies with an environmentally friendly strategy., (© 2022 Wiley-VCH GmbH.)

Nanoplastic pollution, the final product of plastic waste fragmentation in the environment, represents an increasing concern for the scientific community due to the easier diffusion and higher hazard associated with their small sizes. Therefore, there is a pressing demand for effective strategies to quantify and remove nanoplastics in wastewater. This work presents the "on-the-fly" capture of nanoplastics in the three-dimensional (3D) space by multifunctional MXene-derived oxide microrobots and their further detection. A thermal annealing process is used to convert Ti 3 C 2 T x MXene into photocatalytic multi-layered TiO 2 , followed by the deposition of a Pt layer and the decoration with magnetic γ-Fe 2 O 3 nanoparticles. The MXene-derived γ-Fe 2 O 3 /Pt/TiO 2 microrobots show negative photogravitaxis, resulting in a powerful fuel-free motion with six degrees of freedom under light irradiation. Owing to the unique combination of self-propulsion and programmable Zeta potential, the microrobots can quickly attract and trap nanoplastics on their surface, including the slits between multi-layer stacks, allowing their magnetic collection. Utilized as self-motile preconcentration platforms, they enable nanoplastics' electrochemical detection using low-cost and portable electrodes. This proof-of-concept study paves the way toward the "on-site" screening of nanoplastics in water and its successive remediation., (© 2022. The Author(s).)

Titanium miniplates are biocompatible materials used in modern oral and maxillofacial surgery to treat facial bone fractures. However, plate removal is often required due to implant complications. Among them, a biofilm formation on an infected miniplate is associated with severe inflammation, which frequently results in implant failure. In light of this, new strategies to control or treat oral bacterial biofilm are of high interest. Herein, the authors exploit the ability of nanorobots against multispecies bacterial biofilm grown onto facial commercial titanium miniplate implants to simulate pathogenic conditions of the oral microenvironment. The strategy is based on the use of light-driven self-propelled tubular black-TiO 2 /Ag nanorobots, that unlike traditional ones, exhibit an extended absorption and motion actuation from UV to the visible-light range. The motion analysis is performed separately over UV, blue, and green light irradiation and shows different motion behaviors, including a fast rotational motion that decreases with increasing wavelengths. The biomass reduction is monitored by evaluating LIVE/DEAD fluorescent and digital microscope images of bacterial biofilm treated with the nanorobots under motion/no-motion conditions. The current study and the obtained results can bring significant improvements for effective therapy of infected metallic miniplates by biofilm., (© 2022 Wiley-VCH GmbH.)

Nature presents the collective behavior of living organisms aiming to accomplish complex tasks, inspiring the development of cooperative micro/nanorobots. Herein, the spontaneous assembly of hematite-based microrobots with different shapes is presented. Autonomous motile light-driven hematite/Pt microrobots with cubic and walnut-like shapes are prepared by hydrothermal synthesis, followed by the deposition of a Pt layer to design Janus structures. Both microrobots show a fuel-free motion ability under light irradiation. Because of the asymmetric orientation of the magnetic dipole moment in the crystal, cubic hematite/Pt microrobots can self-assemble into ordered microchains, contrary to the random aggregation observed for walnut-like microrobots. The microchains exhibit different synchronized motions under light irradiation depending on the mutual orientation of the individual microrobots during the assembly, which allows them to accomplish multiple tasks, including capturing, picking up, and transporting microscale objects, such as yeast cells and suspended matter in water extracted from personal care products, as well as degrading polymeric materials. Such light-powered self-assembled microchains demonstrate an innovative cooperative behavior for small-scale multitasking artificial robotic systems, holding great potential toward cargo capture, transport, and delivery, and wastewater remediation.

Inspired by the increasing desire to mimic the perfection of nature, micro- and nanorobots are triggering increasing interest among the scientific community. The development of such tiny machines that can autonomously perform specific and various tasks at a small scale has reached a high-level of complexity over the last 15 years although the transition from hard to soft self-propelled architectures has had the most profound impact. The use of organic components, such as polymers, is of particular interest to fulfill the lack of biocompatibility and biodegradability of inorganic-based microrobots. Additionally, the combination of self-powered micro- and nanorobots with some macromolecules' ability to be deformed and respond to external stimuli is an important topic. This review aims to critically assess the fundamental aspects of smart machines composed of polymers, examine recent advances in the combined systems at the micro- and nanoscale, and discuss the specific contribution of several polymer families. This review elucidates the role of smart polymers in the expanding field of intelligent micromachines.

Hybrid microrobots have recently attracted attention due to their ability to combine different energy sources and/or external stimuli for propulsion and performing desired tasks. Despite progresses in the past, on-demand speed modulation for hybrid microrobots has not been analyzed in detail. Herein, the influence of surface properties and crystallite size on the propulsion mechanism of Pt/TiO 2 chemical/light-driven hybrid microrobots is investigated. The morphology of urchin-like Pt/TiO 2 microrobots leads to "on-the-fly" optical brake behavior under UV irradiation. In contrast, smooth Pt/TiO 2 microrobots demonstrate accelerated motion in the same conditions. The comparison between two types of microrobots also indicates the significance of a high surface area and a high crystallite size to increase their speed. The results demonstrate the profound impact of surface features for next-generation smart micro/nanorobots with on-demand reaction capability in dynamically changing environments., (© 2021 Wiley-VCH GmbH.)

The aim of this study was the development of antimicrobial polyvinylchloride (PVC) blends loaded with 0.1-10% (w/w) of the ILs 1-hexadecyl-3-methylimidazolium 1,3-dimethyl 5-sulfoisophthalate (HdmimDMSIP) and 1-octyloximethyl-3-methylimidazolium hexafluorophosphate (OOMmimPF 6 ). The synthetized ILs were characterized by 1 HNMR, MALDI-TOF, DSC and TGA. PVC/ILs films were obtained by solvent casting.Thermal and mechanical properties (tensile stress TS and elongation at break EB), morphology by SEM, surface wettability, antimicrobial activity, cytotoxicity and ILs release in sterile water from PVC/ILs film blends were determined. Results demonstrated that the presence of both ILs in PVC formulation slightly affected thermal and mechanical properties of blends. The loading of both ILs into PVC matrix made PVC/ILs films hydrophilic, especially at the highest concentration of HdmimDMSIP. The PVC/ILs blends displayed antibacterial activity up to ILs lowest concentrations (0.1-0.5%). The inhibition of Escherichia coli growth was lower than that showed toward Staphylococcus epidermidis. The addition of 10% ILs concentration resulted excessive as demonstrated by accumulation of ILs on film surfaces (SEM) and ILs high release from PVC/ILs blends during the first day of water immersion. Biocompatibility studies highlighted that the addition of low amounts of both ILs into PVC matrix is not cytotoxic for mouse fibroblast cells (L929), supporting their potential use for biomedical porposes., (Copyright © 2021 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Imidazolium-based ionic liquids (ILs) have interesting antimicrobial activity and their inclusion in a flexible film is ideal to take advantage of their properties in practical applications. Poly(ether-block-amide) (Pebax ® Rnew) films were prepared by solution casting, loading two synthetized ILs (1-hexadecyl-3-methylimidazolium dimethyl-5-sulfoisophthalate [Hdmim][DMSIP], IL1 and 1-octyloximethyl-3-methylimidazolium hexafluorophosphate [OOMmim][PF 6 ], IL2) up to 5 wt.%. The ILs were characterized by 1 H NMR and MALDI-TOF spectroscopy. The films were investigated for miscibility, morphology, wettability, spectral properties and gas transport. The films display a good thermal stability (>200 °C). Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) proves phase separation in the blends, that is consistent with FTIR analysis and with the island-like surface morphology observed in the micrographs. Gas permeability tests revealed that the IL-loaded films are dense and poreless, keeping the selectivity of the polymer matrix with a somewhat lessened permeability owing to the impermeable ILs crystals. The film antimicrobial activity, evaluated against Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacterial strains, was correlated to the structure of the incorporated ILs. The smaller IL2 salt did not modify the hydrophobic nature of the neat polymer and was readily released from the films. Instead, IL1, having a longer alkyl chain in the cation, provided a promising antimicrobial activity with a good combination of hydrophilicity, permeability and thermal stability.

A novel hybrid photoactive material based on graphene foam (G) coupled with porphyrin-based polymers (Porph rings) was formulated by using a time-saving procedure to remove nickel from the final device. Specifically, Porph rings were spin coated onto the G platform with the double function of a visible-light photocatalyst and protective agent during nickel etching. The characterization of G-Porph rings was assessed by Scanning Electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and photoluminescence (PL). The novel material showed photocatalytic ability in degrading different classes of pollutants such as the herbicide 2,4 dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D), polyethylene glycol (PEG) as an ingredient of care and health products, and also the methylene blue (MB) dye. UV-Vis spectroscopy, total organic carbon (TOC) and soft mass spectrometry techniques were used to monitor the photocatalytic process. The best performance in terms of photocatalytic efficiency was exhibited versus PEG and MB degradation. Furthermore, to determine the individual contribution of Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) produced, free radical and hole scavenging tests were also carried out. Finally, a detailed map of the photocatalytic degradation mechanisms was proposed, reporting also the calculation of Porph rings' Highest Occupied Molecular Orbital (HOMO) and Lowest Occupied Molecular Orbital (LUMO) energy level values., Competing Interests: There are no conflicts to declare., (This journal is © The Royal Society of Chemistry.)

The design of new hybrid nanocomposites based on poly(2-hydroxyethylmethacrylate) (pHEMA) graphene oxide (GO) cryosponges, wherein ZnO nanolayers have been deposited to induce photocatalytic properties, is reported here. Atomic layer deposition at low temperature is specifically selected as the deposition technique to stably anchor ZnO molecules to the pendant polymer OH groups. Furthermore, to boost the pHEMA cryogel adsorption capability versus organic dyes, GO is added during the synthetic procedure. The morphology, the crystallinity, and the chemical composition of the samples are deeply investigated by scanning electron microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction analyses, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, and thermogravimetric analysis. Swelling properties, mechanical performance, and adsorption kinetics models of the hybrid materials are also evaluated. Finally, the adsorption and photocatalytic performance are tested and compared for all of the samples using methylene blue as a dye. Particularly, the adsorption efficiency of ZnO/pHEMA and ZnO/pHEMA-GO nanocomposites, as well as their in situ regeneration via photocatalysis, renders such devices very appealing for advanced wastewater treatment technology.

We describe a case of septic arthritis in a native knee due to Corynebacterium striatum, gram-positive bacilli that are usually commensal organisms of skin and mucosal membranes, but are seldom implicated in native septic arthritis. An 84-year-old man with Corynebacterium striatum septic arthritis of his native left knee and no response to conventional antibiotic therapy. Thus, the patient was allowed to take dalbavancin for compassionate use, with an excellent clinical outcome. This case emphasizes de role of Corynebacterium striatum in native joint infections and highlights the importance of early detection and appropriate treatment in improving the clinical outcome., (Copyright © 2017 Elsevier España, S.L.U. and Sociedad Española de Reumatología y Colegio Mexicano de Reumatología. All rights reserved.)

A new concept in the formulation of hybrid nanostructured materials combining high quality graphene 3D supported by Nickel foam and polyporphyrins for visible light photocatalytic application is here reported. Our innovative approach involves the development of a freestanding device able to: i) offer a high surface area to bind the photosensitizers by π-π interactions, and ii) enhance stability and photocatalytic efficiency by using cyclic porphyrin polymers. For these purposes, homo- and co-polymerization reactions by using different porphyrin (free or zinc complexed) monomers were performed. The microscopic structures and morphology of graphene polymer nanocomposites were investigated by using Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM). Finally, photocatalytic activity under visible light irradiation of the obtained nanocomposites was tested, by using methylene blue (MB) as organic pollutant. The obtained data suggested that hindered cyclic polymeric structures stacked on graphene surface by non-covalent interactions, restrict the formation of non photoactive aggregates and, as a consequence, induce an enhancement of photocatalytic activity. Remarkably, our systems show a degradation efficiency in the visible-light range much higher than other similar devices containing nanoporphyrin units reported in literature.