Search

Wetland ecosystem services have come under severe threat globally due to environmental changes and anthropogenic impacts. Understanding the trend and usages of the ecosystem services with associated reasons, conservation attitude and determinants of payment responses of local inhabitants based on wetland proximity can benefit the adjacent communities and policy makers. The major contribution of the present study is that the study investigated the patterns of use and livelihood significance of wetland ecosystem services in data-deficit regions of north-eastern Bangladesh through evaluating the perceptions of local experts and community people. In addition, we examined the willingness to pay (WTP) attitudes using two payment vehicles and three payment versions as well as examined the effect of livelihood assets on their WTP. Results showed that the ecosystem services satisfy the subsistence, semi-commercial, commercial and beneficial requirements of the adjacent communities. Amongst the twenty-nine identified species, a few were locally extinct, and the availability of a number of other species decreased substantially. Conservation attitudes revealed that 25% of the respondents were interested in cash payment of which 16% expressed exact amount, whilst 9% mentioned interval values. However, 45% respondents were willing to volunteer a given number of days per annum of which 27% and 18% elicited exact and interval values, respectively. Interval regression results showed that WTP for conservation of the ecosystem services was sensitive to livelihood capitals. The study suggests proximity-based policies, declaring the wetland as an ecologically critical area, and utilising volunteering efforts by local inhabitants for conservation.

Chapter 4 of the thematic assessment of the sustainable use of wild species of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services., Suggested citation: Balachander, G., Halmy, M.W.A., Parlee, B., Biggs, D., Chatakonda, M., Cisneros-Montemayor, A.M., Cormier-Salem, M-C., Dasgupta, R., Devkota, S., Diniz, J., Elfaki, A., Hiwasaki, L., Lichtenstein, G., Richter, A., Shah, M.A., Shanley, P., Shrestha, U.B., Lee, T.M., Bayarbaatar, B. and Kieling, D. (2022). Chapter 4: The drivers of the sustainable use of wild species. In: Thematic Assessment Report on the Sustainable Use of Wild Species of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services. Fromentin, J.M., Emery, M.R., Donaldson, J., Danner, M.C., Hallosserie, A., and Kieling, D. (eds.). IPBES Secretariat, Bonn, Germany. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.6451494

Striped hyenas (Hyaena hyaena) are extremely rare in Nepal, and only a few people have studied them in their natural forest and grassland habitat. Their rarity is due to anthropogenic pressures such as hunting, habitat modification, being killed on roads, and depletion of their natural prey. Here, we studied the feeding ecology of hyenas in lowland, Nepal. We employed an opportunistic sampling to collect hyena scats in a range of habitats and the line transect sampling to identify the prey of the hyena in the study site. We collected 68 hyena scats between 2015 and 2018. Most of the hyena scat (39.7%) was found in the Churia Hill forest followed by riverbed (26.4%), mixed forest (14.7%), Sal (Shorea robusta)‐dominated forest (11.7%), and grassland area (7.3%). We found eleven mammalian prey species, plants, and some unidentified items in the hyena scats. The frequency of occurrence and relative biomass of the medium‐sized wild boar (Sus scrofa) were higher than other smaller prey species such as hare (Lepus nigricollis) and rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta). Similarly, the proportion of large prey species such as nilgai (Boselaphus tragocamelus) in the hyena diet was lower compared with wild boar, hares, and rhesus macaques indicating medium‐sized wild boar is the most preferred prey species. Livestock contributed 17.3% of the total dietary biomass. Domesticated species such as goats, sheep, cows, and even dogs were found in the diet of hyenas. Predation of livestock by hyenas could cause conflict, especially if this ongoing issue continues in the future. Rather, more conservation effort is required in lowland areas of Nepal to protect the hyenas' natural prey species, particularly in wildlife habitats to reduce the lure of taking domestic livestock. Similarly, conservation education at the local level and active involvement of government authorities in the conservation of this species might be helpful to mitigate human–hyena conflict in the human‐dominated landscape., We employed scat‐sampling method to understand the prey diversity in the hyenas' diet and found eleven mammalian prey species, plants, and some unidentified items in the hyena's scat. Livestock contributed 17.3% of the total biomass. In addition, hyenas have positive selection towards livestock such as dogs and predation of livestock by the hyenas could cause conflict between human and hyena.

There have been calls for greater inclusion of Indigenous and local knowledge (ILK) in applied ecosystems research and ecological assessments. The Intergovernmental Science‐Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) Global Assessment (GA) is the first global scale assessment to systematically engage with ILK and issues of concern to Indigenous peoples and local communities (IPLC). In this paper, we review and reflect on how the GA worked with ILK and lessons learned. The GA engaged in critical evaluation and synthesis of existing evidence from multiple sources, using several deliberative steps: having specific authors and questions focus on ILK; integrating inputs from ILK across all chapters; organizing dialogue workshops; issuing calls for contributions to identify other forms and systems of knowledge; and encouraging IPLC to be key stakeholders and contributors. We identify content areas where attention to ILK was particularly important for questions in applied ecology. These include: (a) enriching understandings of nature and its contributions to people, including ecosystem services; (b) assisting in assessing and monitoring ecosystem change; (c) contributing to international targets and scenario development to achieve global goals like the Aichi Biodiversity Targets and the Sustainable Development Goals and (d) generating inclusive and policy‐relevant options for people and nature. However, challenges in engaging different knowledge systems were also encountered. Policy implications. The Intergovernmental Science‐Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) Global Assessment (GA) demonstrated the importance of Indigenous peoples and local communities (IPLC) to global biodiversity conservation and ecosystem management. Initiatives seeking to engage Indigenous and local knowledge (ILK) can learn from the experience of the GA. Successfully bringing ILK into assessment processes and policy arenas requires a deliberate framework and approach from the start that facilitates recognition of different knowledge systems, identifies questions relevant at various scales, mobilizes funding and recognizes time required and engages networks of stakeholders with diverse worldviews. In turn, fostering inclusion of ILK and partnering with IPLC can help future assessments understand how natural and cultural systems co‐produce each other, identify trends of change through diverse biocultural indicators and improve sustainable development goals and policies.

Tiger populations in Nepal increased from 121 in 2009 to around 235 in 2018 (Jaznkya 2018). If this trend continues, Nepal could be the first country to double its national tiger population under the T × 2 goal of doubling the world’s tiger population by 2022 set at the World Tiger Submit in 2010 in St Petersburg, Russia. Despite some doubts in the number of tigers estimated and criticism with the questionable census method (Dixit 2018; Karanth et al. 2011), the reported increase brings optimism for the future of this endangered species, and for Nepal’s conservation success. Changes in tiger conservation policies and programmes, the establishment of a new protected area, control of illegal hunting and poaching, and increased private funding and capacity building are regarded as major contributing factors for the increase in the tiger population (Karki et al. 2011; GON 2013; Dixit 2018). Despite this success, the challenges of tiger conservation in Nepal have increased considerably even in the face of increased tiger mortality which exacerbates the problem.

Aim Climate change has increased the risk of biological invasions, particularly by increasing the climatically suitable regions for invasive alien species. The distribution of many native and invasive species has been predicted to change under future climate. We performed species distribution modelling of invasive alien plants (IAPs) to identify hotspots under current and future climate scenarios in Nepal, a country ranked among the most vulnerable countries to biological invasions and climate change in the world. Location Nepal. Methods We predicted climatically suitable niches of 24 out of the total 26 reported IAPs in Nepal under current and future climate (2050 for RCP 6.0) using an ensemble of species distribution models. We also conducted hotspot analysis to highlight the geographic hotspots for IAPs in different climatic zones, land cover, ecoregions, physiography and federal states. Results Under future climate, climatically suitable regions for 75% of IAPs will expand in contrast to a contraction of the climatically suitable regions for the remaining 25% of the IAPs. A high proportion of the modelled suitable niches of IAPs occurred on agricultural lands followed by forests. In aggregation, both extent and intensity (invasion hotspots) of the climatically suitable regions for IAPs will increase in Nepal under future climate scenarios. The invasion hotspots will expand towards the high‐elevation mountainous regions. In these regions, land use is rapidly transforming due to the development of infrastructure and expansion of tourism and trade. Main conclusions Negative impacts on livelihood, biodiversity and ecosystem services, as well as economic loss caused by IAPs in the future, may be amplified if preventive and control measures are not immediately initiated. Therefore, the management of IAPs in Nepal should account for the vulnerability of climate change‐induced biological invasions into new areas, primarily in the mountains.

Nitrogen loss and soil salinity are two key global issues for sustainable farming systems. Simultaneous mitigation of these issues requires contrasting nitrogen and water management practices, warranting a holistic understanding of the resulting nitrogen losses. This research aims to understand the i) interactive effects of salinity management, soil conditions and rainfall variability on nitrogen leaching, and ii) general trends in economic and environmental trade-off from reduced leaching fraction and nitrogen applications to minimise nitrogen loss. Simulations were run for 116 years (1900–2015) taking irrigated Australian cotton as a reference. Results showed that nitrogen leaching increased with leaching fraction, from 1 to 4 kg ha−1 for a soil comprising of high plant available water capacity + low initial soil nitrogen to as high as 46 kg ha−1 for its counterpart condition. Leaching increased with in-crop rainfall, the wettest conditions (679 mm) contributing for, up to 75% additional leaching. Depending on soil salinity, trade-off involving leaching fraction reduction by 0.05 units (from typical 0.20) resulted in lower drainage (up to 6%) and lower leaching (up to 5%) but also reduced the net returns (up to 50%). In contrast, nitrogen fertiliser reduction by 25 kg ha−1 (from typical 250 kg ha−1) showed little benefit to leaching reduction, but led to lower economic losses, higher nitrogen use efficiency and lower nitrous oxide emission. The study suggests that nitrogen losses under salinity can be alleviated through avoiding over-irrigation but without compromising the critical leaching requirements, applying fertiliser according to the soil spatial variability, and maximising rainwater use to meet leaching needs.

The knowledge, values, and practices of Indigenous peoples and local communities offer ways to understand and better address social-environmental problems. The article reviews the state of the literature on this topic by focusing on six pathways by which Indigenous peoples and local communities engage with management of and relationships to nature. These are ( a) undertaking territorial management practices and customary governance, ( b) contributing to nature conservation and restoration efforts with regional to global implications, ( c) co-constructing knowledge for assessments and monitoring, ( d) countering the drivers of unsustainable resource use and resisting environmental injustices, ( e) playing key roles in environmental governance across scales, and ( f) offering alternative conceptualizations of the interrelations between people and nature. The review shows that through these pathways Indigenous peoples and local communities are making significant contributions to managing the health of local and regional ecosystems, to producing knowledge based in diverse values of nature, confronting societal pressures and environmental burdens, and leading and partnering in environmental governance. These contributions have local to global implications but have yet to be fully recognized in conservation and development polices, and by society at large.

Significance Understanding and tracking nature’s contributions to people provides critical feedback that can improve our ability to manage earth systems effectively, equitably, and sustainably. Declines in biodiversity and ecosystem functions over the past 50 y have decreased the ability of nature to contribute to quality of life. Changes in technology and adaptation in social systems has partially offset the negative impacts of environmental change on quality of life, but downward trends have still occurred for many categories of nature’s contributions., Declining biodiversity and ecosystem functions put many of nature’s contributions to people at risk. We review and synthesize the scientific literature to assess 50-y global trends across a broad range of nature’s contributions. We distinguish among trends in potential and realized contributions of nature, as well as environmental conditions and the impacts of changes in nature on human quality of life. We find declining trends in the potential for nature to contribute in the majority of material, nonmaterial, and regulating contributions assessed. However, while the realized production of regulating contributions has decreased, realized production of agricultural and many material commodities has increased. Environmental declines negatively affect quality of life, but social adaptation and the availability of substitutes partially offset this decline for some of nature’s contributions. Adaptation and substitutes, however, are often imperfect and come at some cost. For many of the contributions of nature, we find differing trends across different countries and regions, income classes, and ethnic and social groups, reinforcing the argument for more consistent and equitable measurement.

Background As with other coronavirus-affected countries, Nepal’s medical community also expressed concerns regarding the government’s public health strategies and hospital readiness in response to increasing COVID-19 case surge. To gauge such response, we assessed service availability and readiness status in hospitals situated across seven provinces. Methods A web-based observational study was conducted between March 24 and April 07 in 110 hospitals, all of which were later designated as COVID-19 clinics or hospitals by Nepal Government. An electronic survey link was sent out to the clinicians working at the frontline in those hospitals. One response per hospital was analyzed. Hospitals were divided into small, medium, and large based on the total number of beds (small:15 or less; medium:16–50; large:>50), and further categorized into public, private, and mixed based on the ownership. Results Out of 110 hospitals, 81% (22/27) of small, 39% (11/28) of medium, and 33% (18/55) of large hospitals had not allocated isolation beds for COVID-19 suspects or cases. Majority of medium (89%; 25/28), and 38% of large hospitals did not have a functional intensive care unit (ICU) at the time of study. Nasopharyngeal (NP)/throat swab kits were available in one-third (35/110), whereas viral transport media (VTM), portable fridge box, and refrigerator were available in one-fifth (20%) of the hospitals. Only one hospital (large/tertiary) had a functional PCR machine. Except for General practitioners, other health cadres—crucial during pandemics, were low in number. On IPC measures, the supplies of simple face mask, gloves and hand sanitizers were adequate in the majority of hospitals, however, N95-respirators and PPE-suits were grossly lacking. Government’s COVID-19 support was unevenly distributed across provinces; health facilities in provinces 2, 4, and 5 received fewer resources than others. Conclusions Our findings alerted the Nepalese and other governments to act early and proactively during health emergencies and not wait until the disease disrupts their health systems. Other countries with similar economy levels may undertake similar surveys to measure and improve their pandemic response.

Despite broad scientific consensus on climate change, public views may not always correspond with scientific findings. Understanding public perceptions of climate change is thus crucial to both identifying problems and delivering solutions. Investigations of climate change that integrate instrumental records and people’s perceptions in the Himalayas are scarce and fragmentary compared to other regions of the world. We analyzed nationally representative data (n = 5060) of local peoples’ perception of climate change in Nepal, and assessed annual and seasonal trends of temperature and precipitation, onsets of seasons, and trends of climate extremes, based on gridded climate datasets. We firstly used quantitative and spatial techniques to compare local perceptions and the instrumentally observed trends of climate variables. We then examined the possible association of demographic variables, place attachment, regional differences, and prior understanding of climate change with the accuracy of people’s perceptions. Instrumental evidence showed consistent warming, increasing hot days and nights, and increasing annual precipitation, wet spells, heavy precipitation and decreasing dry spells in Nepal. Our results indicate that locals accurately perceived the shifts in temperature but their perceptions of precipitation change did not converge with the instrumental records. We suggest that, in future as exposure to changes in weather, particularly extreme events, continues, people may become more likely to detect change which corresponds with observed trends. With some new methodological insights gained through integrating community perceptions with observed climate data, the results of this study provides valuable information to support policies to reduce climate-related risk and enhance climate change adaptation.

As with other coronavirus-affected countries, Nepalese medical fraternity also expressed concerns regarding public health strategies of government and hospital readiness in response to upgoing case surge. To gauge such response, we assessed service availability and Infection prevention and control (IPC) status in 110 hospitals situated across seven provinces. An electronic survey was sent out to the frontline clinicians working on those hospitals between 24th March and 7th April 2020; one response per hospital was analyzed. Hospitals were divided into small, medium, and large based on the total number of beds (small:50), and further categorized into public, private, and mixed based on the ownership. Out of 110 hospitals, 81% (22/27) of small, 39% (11/28) of medium, and 33% (18/55) of large hospitals had not allocated isolation beds for COVID-19 suspects. All small, majority of medium (89%; 25/28), and 50% of large hospitals did not have a functional intensive care unit (ICU) at the time of study. Nasopharyngeal (NP)/throat swab kits were available in one-third (35/110), whereas viral transport media (VTM), portable fridge box, and refrigerator were available in one-fifth (20%) of hospitals. Only one hospital (large/tertiary) had a functional PCR machine. Except for General practitioners, other health cadres- crucial during pandemics, were low in number. On IPC measures, the supplies of simple face masks, gloves, and hand sanitizers were adequate in the majority of hospitals, however, N95-respirators, Filter masks, and PPE-suits were grossly lacking. Government COVID-19 support was unevenly distributed across provinces; health facilities in Province 2, Gandaki, and Province 5 received fewer resources than others. Our findings alert the Nepalese and other governments to act early and proactively during health emergencies and not wait until the disease disrupts their health systems. Other countries of similar economic levels may undertake similar surveys to measure and improve their pandemic response.

The management of invasive species is a complex, yet an essential component of biodiversity conservation and environmental management for sustainable futures. Despite a well-established linkage between biological invasions and human activities, the social dimension of invasive species management is less explored as compared to the ecological aspects. In recent years, the active participation of local communities, such as assessing levels of awareness and the selection of targeted species prioritized by communities, has been considered as a crucial element for managing invasive species. We conducted 32 focus group discussions (FGDs) including 218 participants in Chitwan-Annapurna Landscape (ChAL) of central Nepal, to assess knowledge and perceptions of agrarian and forest-dependent communities about invasive alien plants (IAPs), document the efforts of the community management of IAPs and prioritize IAPs for management. In the prioritization exercise, participants of each FGD were asked to rank three IAPs using scoring methods and to express their experience about the effects of the selected IAPs on humans and the environment. We found that communities had a living memory of the arrival of some of the IAPs in their locality without knowing the exotic nature of IAPs. Biodiversity loss, livestock poisoning, reduced agricultural production and forage supply, and negative impact on forest regeneration were reported as major negative impacts of IAPs. Communities also reportedly utilized IAPs for medicinal purposes, making compost by using biomass, and controlling floods and landslides. None of the government and non-governmental organizations working in the sectors of biodiversity conservation and environmental management has informed local forest-dependent agrarian communities about the consequences of biological invasions and management of IAPs. However, local communities had already started controlling the spread of some IAPs through manual uprooting. They were able to spot, identify and prioritize IAPs for management and some of the prioritized species were among the world's worst invasive species. Ageratum houstonianum was the top-ranked worst invasive species in agroecosystems while Chromolaena odorata and Ageratina adenophora were the top-ranked worst species in natural ecosystems. Our findings will be useful for guiding community education programs as well as the management of IAPs through formal policy and management plans, such as Nepal's National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan.

Rural communities in developing countries extract provisioning ecosystem services from the natural environment to meet their subsistence needs, generate cash income and create employment opportunities. Caterpillar fungus Ophiocordyceps sinensis, known as yartsagunbu in Tibet and in the literature on this subject, is a medicinal resource extracted by the mountain communities of the Himalaya. Studies of the contribution of the fungus to local livelihoods in the Indian Himalaya are scarce. We investigated trade and harvest and analysed the contribution of caterpillar fungus to household economies in 32 villages in Dhauliganga Valley, Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve, in the Western Himalaya. Caterpillar fungus harvesting has become an integral part of local livelihoods in the study area, and on average contributes c. 74% of household cash income. The majority of harvesters perceived that harvesting had become more difficult during 2010–2015 as a result of competition and a decline in abundance of the species. The mean annual per capita harvest declined by 54 pieces during 2011–2015. Increasing harvesting and trade, coupled with the dependency of local communities on the fungus, may result in greater extraction of the resource for short-term economic benefits, and could eventually lead to depletion and ecological damage. Harvesting of the fungus has already created environmental, legal and social challenges, although it has become a lucrative livelihood opportunity. The ongoing decline of the fungus threatens local livelihoods. Good governance and livelihood security should be integrated with biodiversity conservation when devising government policies and plans for sustainable management of the caterpillar fungus.

The biological invasions have been increasing at multiple spatial scales and the management of invasive alien species is becoming more challenging due to confounding effects of climate change on the distribution of those species. Identification of climatically suitable areas for invasive alien species and their range under future climate change scenarios are essential for long-term management planning of these species. Using occurrence data of six of the most problematic invasive alien plants (IAPs) of Nepal (Ageratum houstonianum Mill., Chromolaena odorata (L.) R.M. King & H. Rob., Hyptis suaveolens (L.) Poit., Lantana camara L., Mikania micrantha Kunth, and Parthenium hysterophorus L.), we have predicted their climatically suitable areas across the country under the current and two future climate change scenarios (RCP 4.5 scenarios for 2050 and 2070). We have developed an ensemble of eight different species distribution modelling approaches to predict the location of climatically suitable areas. Under the current climatic condition, P. hysterophorus had the highest suitable area (18% of the total country’s area) while it was the lowest for M. micrantha (12%). A predicted increase in the currently suitable areas ranges from 3% (M. micrantha) to 70% (A. houstonianum) with the mean value for all six species being 29% under the future climate change scenario for 2050. For four species (A. houstonianum, C. odorata, H. suaveolens and L. camara), additional areas at elevations higher than the current distribution will provide suitable habitat under the projected future climate. In conclusion, all six IAPs assessed are likely to invade additional areas in future due to climate change and these scenarios need to be considered while planning for IAPs management as well as climate change adaptation.

Around the world, climate change has impacted many species. In this study, we used bioclimatic variables and biophysical layers of Central Asia and the Asian Highlands combined with presence data of brown bear (Ursus arctos) to understand their current distribution and predict their future distribution under the current rate of climate change. Our bioclimatic model showed that the current suitable habitat of brown bear encompasses 3,430,493 km2 in the study area, the majority of which (>65%) located in China. Our analyses demonstrated that suitable habitat will be reduced by 11% (378,861.30 km2) across Central Asia and the Asian Highlands by 2,050 due to climate change, predominantly (>90%) due to the changes in temperature and precipitation. The spatially averaged mean annual temperature of brown bear habitat is currently −1.2°C and predicted to increase to 1.6°C by 2,050. Mean annual precipitation in brown bear habitats is predicted to increase by 13% (from 406 to 459 mm) by 2,050. Such changes in two critical climatic variables may significantly affect the brown bear distribution, ethological repertoires, and physiological processes, which may increase their risk of extirpation in some areas. Approximately 32% (1,124,330 km2) of the total suitable habitat falls within protected areas, which was predicted to reduce to 1,103,912 km2 (1.8% loss) by 2,050. Future loss of suitable habitats inside the protected areas may force brown bears to move outside the protected areas thereby increasing their risk of mortality. Therefore, more protected areas should be established in the suitable brown bear habitats in future to sustain populations in this region. Furthermore, development of corridors is needed to connect habitats between protected areas of different countries in Central Asia. Such practices will facilitate climate migration and connectivity among populations and movement between and within countries.

Early-career experts can play a fundamental role in achievingplanetary sustainability by bridging generational divides anddeveloping novel solutions to complex problems. We arguethat intergenerational partnerships and interdisciplinarycollaboration among early-career experts will enableemerging sustainability leaders to contribute fully to asustainable future. We review 16 international,interdisciplinary, and sustainability-focused early-careercapacity building programs. We conclude that such programsare vital to developing sustainability leaders of the future andthat decision-making for sustainability is likely to be bestserved by strong institutional cultures that promoteintergenerational learning and involvement. Fil: Lim, Michelle. University of Adelaide; Australia Fil: Lynch, Abigail J.. National Climate Change And Wildlife Science Center; Estados Unidos Fil: Fernández Llamazares, Álvaro. Helsinki University Of Technology; Finlandia Fil: Balint, Lenke. Anglia Ruskin University; Reino Unido Fil: Basher, Zeenatul. Michigan State University; Estados Unidos Fil: Chan, Ivis. Sarasota Bay Foundation; Estados Unidos Fil: Jaureguiberry, Pedro. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Córdoba. Instituto Multidisciplinario de Biología Vegetal. Universidad Nacional de Córdoba. Facultad de Ciencias Exactas Físicas y Naturales. Instituto Multidisciplinario de Biología Vegetal; Argentina Fil: Mohamed, AAA. Agricultural Research Center. Central Laboratory for Agricultural Climate; Egipto Fil: Mwampamba, Tuyeni H.. Institute Of Ecosystems And Sustainability Research; México. Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México; México Fil: Palomo, Ignacio. Basque Centre For Climate Change, Spain; España. Universidad Autónoma de Madrid; España Fil: Pliscoff, Patricio. Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile; Chile Fil: Salimov, Rashad A.. Institute Of Botany, Azerbaijan Nat. Academy Of Science; Azerbaiyán Fil: Samakov, Aibek. Department Of Ethnology, University Of Tübingen; Alemania Fil: Selomane, Odirilwe. Natural Resources And The Environment; Sudáfrica. Stockholms Universitet; Suecia Fil: Shrestha, Uttam B.. The University Of Queensland; Australia Fil: Sidorovich, Anna A.. Scientific And Practical Center For Bioresources; Bielorrusia

Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation (REDD+) is a global climate change mitigation strategy. Under the proposed REDD+ framework, financial incentives are provided, primarily to developing countries, for forest conservation to reduce carbon emissions. Projects labelled as REDD are being implemented in a wide variety of settings in different countries. Developing an effective benefit-distribution mechanism between implementing agencies and local communities is a key challenge for the implementation of REDD+. We examined whether the REDD+ payment mechanism adopted in a REDD+ pilot project in Nepal is beneficial to the local forest users. We estimated economic contribution of the REDD+ payments to the total household income, calculated the role of payment in reducing income inequality at the household level and examined socio-economic heterogeneity represented by wealth and ethnicity among the payment recipient households. REDD+ payment provided economic benefits to the poorest households but the economic contribution of the payment to the household economy is very nominal and is insufficient to invest in livelihood enhancement activities. REDD+ payment to some extent helps to reduce income inequality among the households. Social heterogeneity of a household overshadowed household wealth status during the payment distribution among the sampled households creating social tension. Therefore, either alternative payment models or investment in community projects might yield better outcomes.

Products obtained from forests or other natural environments play a crucial role in sustaining the livelihoods of poor people in developing countries through income generation and the creation of employment opportunities. Although studies have been carried out to evaluate the dependence of local livelihoods on environmental products, quantify the linkage between poverty and biodiversity, and assess the impacts of resource depletion on household economics, most have been focused geographically on the tropics. Our study was conducted in the mountain village of Jumla, Nepal, to quantify the economic contribution of Chinese caterpillar fungus Ophiocordyceps sinensis (yarsagumba) to local households. Income from yarsagumba accounted for up to 65% of the total household cash income, on average, and its contribution was highest in the poorest households. It contributed to reducing income inequality by 38%, and the income was utilized to purchase food and clothes, celebrate festivals, pay for medical treatment and children's education, and for savings. There was a mean annual decline of 25 pieces in the per capita harvest of yarsagumba during 2010–2014. However, the decline had no adverse impact on household income, as the price increased.

Incentives can enhance community participation in conservation programs, but our understanding of how an economic incentive influences the participation of households in forest management is limited. REDD+ (Reducing Emission for Deforestation and forest Degradation)—a climate change mitigation mechanism initiated by international communities—provides payments to developing countries for better conservation of their forests. The REDD+ pilot project was implemented in community forests of Nepal through which REDD+ payment was distributed to the households involved in forest conservation. We examine whether REDD+ payments enhance participation of households in forest conservation, benefit provision, policy making, community services and capacity building programs in community forests of Nepal. Our results show that socio-economic factors such as education, family size, agricultural land holdings, and biophysical factors such as distance from respondent's household to the affiliated community forest are more likely to determine the participation in community forest management rather than economic incentive provided by the REDD+ pilot project.

Global populations of rhinoceros have declined alarmingly, from about 500,000 at the beginning of the 20th century to 29,000 in 2016, largely due to an escalation of poaching for rhinoceros horn (Traffic 2016; Biggs et al. 2013). The current global rhino population is comprised of three Asian Species and two African species, the latter located in South Africa, Kenya, Tanzania, Namibia and Zimbabwe,. In Africa, the Southern white rhinoceros population is estimated at 20,700; and there are estimated to be around 4,885 black rhinoceros. The greater one-horned rhinoceros, found in Nepal and India, has a population of approximately 3,555. The other Asian rhino species are confined to Indonesia and have much lower numbers; there are fewer than 100 Sumatran rhinos and only 58–61 Javan rhinos. The number of African rhino killed by poachers in the last ten years is estimated at 5,957 (Traffic 2016; Emslie et al. 2013; Poaching fact2016), about 1,338 of these were taken in 2015, a year in which the highest number of rhino were taken since the late 1980s (Traffic 2016; Gaworecki 2016; Figure 1). At current poaching rates, Africa’s rhino populations may be extinct within 20 years (Di Minin et al. 2015). The Sumatran and Javan rhino populations continue to decline due to habitat destruction, poaching and inbreeding (Save the Rhino, 2016b) pushing them to the verge of extinction.

Despite increasing scientific understanding of the global environmental crisis, we struggle to adopt the policies science suggests would be effective. One of the reasons for that is the lack of inclusive engagement and dialogue among a wide range of different actors. Furthermore, there is a lack of consideration of differences between languages, worldviews and cultures. In this paper, we propose that engagement across the science-policy interface can be strengthened by being mindful of the breadth and depth of the diverse human-nature relations found around the globe. By examining diverse conceptualizations of ?nature? in more than 60 languages, we identify three clusters: inclusive conceptualizations where humans are viewed as an integral component of nature; non-inclusive conceptualizations where humans are separate from nature; and deifying conceptualizations where nature is understood and experienced within a spiritual dimension. Considering and respecting this rich repertoire of ways of describing, thinking about and relating to nature can help us communicate in ways that resonate across cultures and worldviews. This repertoire also provides a resource we can draw on when defining policies and sustainability scenarios for the future, offering opportunities for finding solutions to global environmental challenges. Fil: Coscieme, Luca. Trinity College Dublin; Irlanda Fil: da Silva Hyldmo, Håkon. Norwegian Environment Agency; Noruega Fil: Fernández-Llamazares, Álvaro. Helsingin Yliopisto; Finlandia Fil: Palomo, Ignacio. Bc3 Basque Centre For Climate Change; España Fil: Mwampamba, Tuyeni H.. Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México; México Fil: Selomane, Odirilwe. Stockholms Universitet; Suecia Fil: Sitas, Nadia. Stockholms Universitet; Suecia Fil: Jaureguiberry, Pedro. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Córdoba. Instituto Multidisciplinario de Biología Vegetal. Universidad Nacional de Córdoba. Facultad de Ciencias Exactas Físicas y Naturales. Instituto Multidisciplinario de Biología Vegetal; Argentina Fil: Takahashi, Yasuo. Institute for Global Environmental Strategies; Japón Fil: Lim, Michelle. University of Adelaide; Australia Fil: Barral, María Paula. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Cientificas y Tecnicas. Centro Cientifico Tecnologico Conicet - Mar del Plata. Instituto de Innovación Para la Producción Agropecuaria y El Desarrollo Sostenible. - Instituto Nacional de Tecnologia Agropecuaria. Centro Regional Buenos Aires Sur. Estacion Experimental Agropecuaria Balcarce. Instituto de Innovación Para la Producción Agropecuaria y El Desarrollo Sostenible.; Argentina Fil: Farinaci, Juliana S.. National Institute For Space Research; Brasil Fil: Diaz-José, Julio. Tecnológico Nacional de México; México Fil: Ghosh, Sonali. Wild life Institute of India; India Fil: Ojino, Joyce. international Institute of Industrial Environmental Economics; Suecia Fil: Alassaf, Amani. The University of Jordan; Jordania Fil: Baatuuwie, Bernard N.. University for Development Studies; Ghana Fil: Balint, Lenke. The Royal Society for the Protection of Birds; Reino Unido Fil: Basher, Zeenatul. Center for Systems Integration and Sustainability; Estados Unidos Fil: Boeraeve, Fanny. Research unit Biodiversity and Landscape; Bélgica Fil: Budiharta, Sugeng. Indonesian Institute of Sciences; India Fil: Chen, Ruishan. East China Normal University; China Fil: Desrousseaux, Maylis. Envrionmental Law Institute; Francia Fil: Dowo, Gregory. Department of Applied Biosciences and Biotechnolog; Zimbabue Fil: Febria, Catherine. University of Canterbury; Nueva Zelanda Fil: Ghazi, Houda. Cadi Ayyad University; Marruecos Fil: Harmáčková, Zuzana V.. Czech Academy of Sciences; República Checa Fil: Jaffe, Rodolfo. Instituto Tecnológico Vale; Brasil Fil: Kalemba, Mphatso M.. Environmental Affairs Department; Malaui Fil: Lambini, Cosmas K.. Bayreuth University; Alemania Fil: Lasmana, Felicia P.S.. HCV Resource Network; Reino Unido Fil: Mohamed, Assem A. A.. Central Laboratory for Agricultural Climate; Egipto Fil: Niamir, Aidin. Senckenberg Biodiversity and Climate Research Center; Alemania Fil: Pliscoff Varas, Patricio Andrés. Universidad Católica de Chile; Chile Fil: Sabyrbekov, Rahat. American University of Central Asia; Kirguistán Fil: Shrestha, Uttam B.. University of Southern Queensland; Australia Fil: Samakov, Aibek. Aigine Cultural Research Center; Kirguistán Fil: Sidorovich, Anna A.. ScientificandPracticalCenterforBioresourcesoftheNationalAcademyofSciencesofBelarus; Bielorrusia Fil: Thompson, Laura. U.S. Geological Survey; Estados Unidos Fil: Valle, Mireia. National Center for Ecological Analysis and Synthesis; Estados Unidos

Biological diversity sustains humanity. It is the nature of the evolutionary process for biodiversity to wax and wane over time, but biodiversity is currently declining at rates undocumented in human history and anthropogenic activities are the primary drivers of biodiversity losses. A variety of solutions have been proposed as means to protect nature and, more specifically, biodiversity. The book you hold posits an idea that may work: the commodification of nature through the lens of biomedical benefits. It remains to be proven whether our decisions and actions will follow this approach and, more so, whether we can pursue this approach in a sustainable relationship with nature, curbing the ongoing rapid species loss while maximizing medical benefits. The challenges are many, cross-cultural, and span engineering and scientific disciplines. The entire value chain iterating between biodiversity and biomedicine requires significant investments of time, money, and expertise if this endeavor is to work. Briefly, challenges include: (1) discovering and documenting species diversity; (2) cataloging traditional medicines developed from these species, including medicinal preparations (e.g., fermentation, desiccation, etc.); (3) assaying genetic and chemical diversity of natural products; (4) testing promising metabolites and other compounds for medical applicability and efficacy (and in turn developing drugs as appropriate); (5) determining why some conservation efforts succeed and others fail; (6) negotiating policies that incentivize and empower local communities to conserve the diversity in their vicinity, while also enacting policies that protect ecosystems from biopiracy and illicit harvesting and trade; and (7) strengthening and developing policy and institutional frameworks to codify and maintain working solutions. Sustainable solutions that bridge biodiversity to biomedicine may include the adoption of policies that shift paradigms around “ownership” of nature and the ecosystem services humans enjoy from diverse systems. Here we provide a context for the concept of commodifying ecosystem services as natural resources. Ozturk M, Dilfuza E, Pešić M, editors. Biodiversity and Biomedicine: Our Future provides. Cambridge (Massachusetts, United States): Academic Press - Elsevier; 2020. p. 525-37.

South Asian countries are often at odds with each other for political, economic, and emotional reasons. The conflicts are a frustrating contrast to the promise of the region. Covering only 3.5% of Earth's landmass, but inhabited by 23.7% of humanity, the region has the highest rate of economic growth, is rich in knowledge-based institutions, and is home to many indigenous and technological innovations. Sadly, at the same time, South Asian countries have the highest poverty rate, lowest human development index (except for sub-Saharan Africa), the most polluted air, the greatest burden of diseases, and increased vulnerability to climate change. It's time to reinvent science diplomacy in this part of the world to spur collaborations that can help resolve conflicts that are preventing South Asia from achieving its potential. Science diplomacy has a long history as a catalyst to promote scientific discourse that unifies researchers across borders despite political hostilities among nations. American and Russian cooperation in space science in the Cold War era, collaboration between Cuba and America on health research, and operation of the South Asian University since 2010 are examples of science diplomacy's successes. South Asian scientists should carry this tradition forward and use collaborative research not only to tackle regional problems but also to encourage a parallel path for improving diplomatic and political relations among countries. Previous attempts to foster regional collaboration in South Asia have not been fruitful. The South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC), for example, was created in 1985 to promote friendship and cooperation between the SAARC nations. Regional Centres for agriculture, energy, public health, and disaster management were created under SAARC. Unfortunately, these Centres have failed to foster regional cooperation in science. Of the 1.2 million publications by South Asian scientists from 2008 to 2017, only 1.3% were jointly produced, most of which lacked regional perspectives. This is not surprising, because a regional mechanism for sharing information is generally absent. Similarly, countries have failed to harness the potential of the 2017 South Asia space satellite GSAT-9 and have not shared each other's independent lessons and achievements across other sectors. Successes in community forestry in Nepal, and changes in energy and resource use in Bangladesh, remain unreplicated. There is, essentially, no unifying South Asian scientific enterprise. Supporting scientific collaborations in South Asia that address shared challenges will require several approaches. Governments should establish a regional funding mechanism similar to that of the South Asian University to fund collaborative research, scholarships, fellowships, science ambassadorships, and faculty exchange programs. Also, national academies should build the capacity of young scientists in science diplomacy and increase the scientific literacy of policy-makers and diplomats. This idea could be discussed at regional or bilateral meetings. Conventionally, researchers in this region are accustomed to collaborating outside of South Asia. Therefore, universities and research institutions should develop incentives to promote research within South Asia in areas of shared relevance, such as climate change, pollution, biodiversity loss, disasters, sustainable energy, and public health. The donors and development partners of the SAARC countries should encourage regional collaborative research through financial and technological support. Furthermore, the regional mobility of scientists should be enhanced by facilitating the granting of a “scientific visa” (the existing SAARC visa exemption scheme does not include scientists). And scientific communities beyond South Asia's boundaries could help to fortify regional chapters, networks, and working groups. A working group at the Global Young Academy called Science Diplomacy in South Asia is such a bottom-up network of early-career scientists that hopes to spur and strengthen regional collaborations through science diplomacy. There is no dearth of ideas to improve scientific collaboration among South Asian countries. Hopefully, these ideas will spark new ways to stabilize the region overall, to the benefit of the global society.

Factors determining the spatial distribution of bird species along altitudinal gradients have been important in their ecological and biogeographical research. Here, have used the data on bird species recorded in Manang, central Nepal Himalayas and attempt to determine the drivers of bird species diversity. We also carried out indicator species analysis to observe if any bird species are associated with different altitudinal ranges and land use gradients. We recorded 1331 individuals belonging to 82 species of both resident and itinerant birds. In our study, altitude was the major factor determining species richness and abundance. Position of study localities is main factor determining bird community composition. Diversity of bird species were mainly found in habitats that were far human settlements, having high annual mean temperature and more roughness. Species diversity was high during July-August compared to September-October and in north-facing slopes, and also in shrub and tree covered areas than grassland and places with mostly snow and grassland. Indicator species analysis showed only 21 species were significantly associated with altitudinal gradients, mostly below 3000 m a.s.l. and only eight bird species were associated with two land use gradients (grassland and snow-glacier). In conclusion, position of sampled localities, altitude, aspect, land use types and different climatic factors were important determinants of bird diversity along altitudinal gradients in Manang. To protect bird diversity in Manang, we need to protect habitats that are located mainly in low altitudes for most of the bird species. However, high altitude habitats with snow and glaciers are also important for few bird species. Thus, a large area with heterogenous habitats is important for bird species management and conservation.

The impacts of climate change in remote communities of the Himalaya have been relatively underexplored. This study combines traditional knowledge of people from three Village Development Committees (VDCs) of three districts of the high altitudinal regions in Nepal with scientific data to document the changes in climatic patterns, natural hazards, ecological systems and agricultural practices. The respondents perceived notable changes in the local climatic conditions, the frequency of natural disasters and ecological processes. Their perception of warming over the past 15–20 years parallels the increase in mean annual temperature recorded in the Thehe VDC of the Humla district, Tukuche VDC of the Mustang district and Lelep VDC of the Taplejung district from 1973 to 2012 by 0.02°C/year, 0.04°C/year and 0.01°C/year, respectively. Most respondents perceived an increase in the frequency of floods and landslides. The recorded average frequency of natural hazards including fire, flooding, landslide and avalanche...

on PDF

Future climate change is likely to affect distributions of species, disrupt biotic interactions, and cause spatial incongruity of predator–prey habitats. Understanding the impacts of future climate change on species distribution will help in the formulation of conservation policies to reduce the risks of future biodiversity losses. Using a species distribution modeling approach by MaxEnt, we modeled current and future distributions of snow leopard (Panthera uncia) and its common prey, blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur), and observed the changes in niche overlap in the Nepal Himalaya. Annual mean temperature is the major climatic factor responsible for the snow leopard and blue sheep distributions in the energy‐deficient environments of high altitudes. Currently, about 15.32% and 15.93% area of the Nepal Himalaya are suitable for snow leopard and blue sheep habitats, respectively. The bioclimatic models show that the current suitable habitats of both snow leopard and blue sheep will be reduced under future climate change. The predicted suitable habitat of the snow leopard is decreased when blue sheep habitats is incorporated in the model. Our climate‐only model shows that only 11.64% (17,190 km2) area of Nepal is suitable for the snow leopard under current climate and the suitable habitat reduces to 5,435 km2 (reduced by 24.02%) after incorporating the predicted distribution of blue sheep. The predicted distribution of snow leopard reduces by 14.57% in 2030 and by 21.57% in 2050 when the predicted distribution of blue sheep is included as compared to 1.98% reduction in 2030 and 3.80% reduction in 2050 based on the climate‐only model. It is predicted that future climate may alter the predator–prey spatial interaction inducing a lower degree of overlap and a higher degree of mismatch between snow leopard and blue sheep niches. This suggests increased energetic costs of finding preferred prey for snow leopards – a species already facing energetic constraints due to the limited dietary resources in its alpine habitat. Our findings provide valuable information for extension of protected areas in future.

The Chure region of Nepal—the area sandwiched between the hills in the north and the plains in the south—is considered an ecologically fragile, structurally weak, and highly erosion-prone region. The forest in the Chure region provides several ecosystem services to people living in the downstream areas. However, assessment and quantification of ecosystem services in this region are very limited. This study, conducted in a watershed of the Chure region of western Nepal, combined local users' perspectives with experts' opinions to identify and rank ecosystem services based on land use types, to investigate the downstream users' willingness to pay for ecosystem services, and to explore the socio-economic factors affecting their willingness to pay. The study found that forests offered the highest number of ecosystem goods and services in this area. Local people were familiar with 10 different ecosystem services provided by the watershed and ranked drinking water service at the top. The downstream beneficiaries would be willing to pay a higher amount for drinking water service than they were currently paying if the quality of the service and its sustainability were assured. The amount they were willing to pay for ecosystem services increased significantly with monthly income. The results of this study are useful for other areas in which an upstream–downstream linkage exists and the upstream communities play a crucial role in maintaining ecosystem functions and the resulting supply of ecosystem services to the downstream communities.

Despite the local and global importance of forests, deforestation driven by various socio-economic and biophysical factors continues in many countries. In Nepal, in response to massive deforestation, the community forestry program has been implemented to reduce deforestation and support livelihoods. After four decades of its inception, the effectiveness of this program on forest cover change remains mostly unknown. This study analyses the spatial and temporal patterns of tree cover change along with a few socio-economic drivers of tree cover change to examine the effectiveness of the community forestry program for conserving forests or in reducing deforestation. We also investigate the socio-economic factors and policy responses as manifested through the community forestry program responsible for the tree cover change at the district level. The total tree cover area in the year 2000 in Nepal was ~ 4,746,000 hectares, and our analysis reveals that between 2001 and 2016, Nepal has lost ~46,000 ha and gained ~12,300 ha of areas covered by trees with a substantial spatial and temporal variations. After accounting socio-economic drivers of forest cover change, our analysis showed that districts with the larger number of community forests had a minimum loss in tree cover, while districts with higher proportion of vegetation covered by community forests had a maximum gain in tree cover. This indicates a positive contribution of the community forestry program to reducing deforestation and increasing tree cover.

Around the world, climate change has impacted many species. In this study, we used bioclimatic variables and biophysical layers of Central Asia and the Asian Highlands combined with presence data of brown bear (Ursus arctos) to understand their current distribution and predict their future distribution under the current rate of climate change. Our bioclimatic model showed that the current suitable habitat of brown bear encompasses 3,430,493 km2 in the study area, the majority of which (>65%) located in China. Our analyses demonstrated that suitable habitat will be reduced by 11% (378,861.30 km2) across Central Asia and the Asian Highlands by 2,050 due to climate change, predominantly (>90%) due to the changes in temperature and precipitation. The spatially averaged mean annual temperature of brown bear habitat is currently −1.2°C and predicted to increase to 1.6°C by 2,050. Mean annual precipitation in brown bear habitats is predicted to increase by 13% (from 406 to 459 mm) by 2,050. Such changes in two critical climatic variables may significantly affect the brown bear distribution, ethological repertoires, and physiological processes, which may increase their risk of extirpation in some areas. Approximately 32% (1,124,330 km2) of the total suitable habitat falls within protected areas, which was predicted to reduce to 1,103,912 km2 (1.8% loss) by 2,050. Future loss of suitable habitats inside the protected areas may force brown bears to move outside the protected areas thereby increasing their risk of mortality. Therefore, more protected areas should be established in the suitable brown bear habitats in future to sustain populations in this region. Furthermore, development of corridors is needed to connect habitats between protected areas of different countries in Central Asia. Such practices will facilitate climate migration and connectivity among populations and movement between and within countries.

Looking to nature for medicine is nothing new – we have been doing it for tens of thousands of years and although modern pharmaceutical science has come a long way from those ancient roots, nature is and will always be an important source of useful compounds and inspiration. Dismissing nature in this regard is a huge mistake as evolution is the greatest problem solver and the myriad compounds produced by the immense variety of species we share the planet with have been honed by three billion years of trial and error. However, with every bit of habitat that disappears under the plough or concrete we impoverish nature and deprive ourselves of potential medicines., Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation (6.7997.2017/8.9); Chancellor's Fellowship from University of Edinburgh

Chinese caterpillar fungus is in spotlight because of its high market value, unusual life history, and numerous medicinal uses. One of the most expensive biological resources of the world, Chinese caterpillar fungus is harvested by the most impoverished communities of the Himalaya to sustain their livelihoods. Skyrocketing international trade and intensive local collections from the wild have raised concerns about the status of natural populations and their conservation. We assessed harvesters’ perceptions of the population status of Chinese caterpillar fungus, causes of decline, and sustainable harvesting in Dolpa, Nepal. Most harvesters (95.1 %) believe that the abundance of Chinese caterpillar fungus has decreased during the last 5 years. This belief is supported by trends in average annual per capita harvest. Climate change, over harvesting, premature harvesting, and reduced number of the larvae are the cited causes of decline in harvests. To validate the harvester’s perceptions of climate change, we analyzed temperature and precipitation data. Pearson’s Chi-square tests between the perceptions of abundance of Chinese caterpillar fungus and demographic variables such as harvesting experience, age, place of origin and education are not significant, indicating that the perceptions are independent of demographic characteristics of harvesters. A large proportion of harvesters (79.31 %) believe that the population might recover if collection is periodically banned for 1–2 years. Other protection measures suggested by the harvesters include changes in the harvesting time, regulation of prices, protection of habitat including solid waste management and control of cattle grazing, and development of local capacity for harvesting on a sustainable basis. A systematic management plan that incorporates trans-national efforts to sustain populations that occur across several countries facing similar human and physical pressures and ecological impacts is needed.

Harvesting of Chinese caterpillar fungus, one of the most expensive biological commodities in the world, has become an important livelihood strategy for mountain communities of Nepal. However, very little is known about the role of Chinese caterpillar fungus in household economy. We estimated the economic contribution of Chinese caterpillar fungus to the household income, quantified the extent of “Chinese caterpillar fungus dependence” among households with different economic and social characteristics, and assessed the role of cash income from the Chinese caterpillar fungus harvest in meeting various household needs including education, debt payments, and food security. Results show that Chinese caterpillar fungus income is the second largest contributor to the total household income after farm income with 21.1% contribution to the total household income and 53.3% to the total cash income. The contribution of Chinese caterpillar fungus income to total household income decreases as the household income increases making its contribution highest for the poorest households. There is significant correlation between Chinese caterpillar fungus dependency and percentage of family members involved in harvesting, number of food-sufficient months, and total income without Chinese caterpillar fungus income. Income from Chinese caterpillar fungus is helping the poorest to educate children, purchase food, and pay debts. However, reported decline of Chinese caterpillar fungus from its natural habitat might threaten local livelihoods that depend on the Chinese caterpillar fungus in future. Therefore, sustainable management of Chinese caterpillar fungus through partnership among local institutions and the state is critical in conserving the species and the sustained flow of benefits to local communities.

The Chinese caterpillar fungus is famous for its high market value, unusual life history, and significant medicinal uses. It is harvested by very poor communities and sold for an extraordinarily high price. Most of the studies on this species are focused on therapeutic uses, chemical analyses, ecology, and trade. However, harvesting techniques and intensity of the harvests remain undocumented. We document harvesting techniques, trends of harvest, and perceptions of the Chinese caterpillar fungus harvesters in Dolpa, Nepal, based on surveys, focus-group discussions, and direct observations. Along with increasing market value, intensity of the harvest has been increasing. The Chinese caterpillar fungus harvest has now become the second most important livelihood strategy for the local communities, after agriculture. Reported per-capita harvest based on the first day of collection has declined over the last 4 years, apparently because of the decline in the stock and the increasing number of harvesters.

Yarsagumba (Ophiocordyceps sinensis), an endemic species to the Himalayas and Tibetan Plateau, is one of the most valuable medicinal mushrooms in the world. In Nepal, it is distributed largely in isolated patches of alpine grasslands of 3,000-5,000 m elevation. Although it is reported from 27 northernmost districts of Nepal, the local distribution pattern of this species is largely unknown. Furthermore, the collection system and local management regime of this species are not well documented. We conducted a field survey at Dhorpatan Hunting Reserve (DHR) among the different stakeholders in January-June 2012 to assess collection sites, patterns and trends and to understand the management regime. We estimated that about 75 kg of Yarsagumba is collected every year from DHR and the amount has been declining since 2008. To manage the resource, locals have initiated regulating the collection by issuing permits, taxing to the collectors, and monitoring the activities of harvesters with the help of park authorities. The revenue generated at local level from the permits has been used for community developmental activities.