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Background: Mycoplasmas are an important cause of respiratory diseases in tortoises. In snakes, evidence of mycoplasma infections has been found almost exclusively in pythons. To better understand the occurrence of these bacteria in other snake species, samples submitted for routine testing for respiratory pathogens were also tested for mycoplasma by polymerase chain reaction (PCR). A total of 640 samples (mostly oral swabs) from snakes of 5 different families (Boidae n = 114, Colubridae n = 109, Elapidae n = 34, Pythonidae n = 301 and Viperidae n = 82) were included in the study. A genus-specific PCR (PCR1) developed for the detection of Mycoplasma [Mycoplasmopsis] agassizii and a pan-mycoplasma PCR (PCR2) were used. PCR products were sequenced for validation and phylogenetic analysis was performed. The sampled animals were from various owners and collections, all in human care at the time of sampling. Clinical background information was not provided. Results: Using PCR1, mycoplasmas were detected in 175 (175/640, 27%) samples (Boidae: 7/114, 6%; Colubridae: 3/109, 3%; Elapidae: 8/34, 24%; Pythonidae: 155/301, 51%; Viperidae: 2/82, 2%). A higher percentage of positive results were obtained using PCR2 (258/640, 40%; Boidae: 9/114, 8%; Colubridae: 25/109, 23%; Elapidae: 19/34, 56%; Pythonidae: 172/301, 57%; Viperidae: 33/82, 40%). The detected bacteria can be divided into at least 6 genetically diverse clusters representing different genera and species based on multiple sequence alignment and phylogenetic analysis. Conclusions: These results show that diverse mycoplasmas are found in pythons and other snakes. Further investigations are necessary to evaluate the role of various mycoplasmas in respiratory diseases in snakes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: The expansion of human activities in northern Colombia has increased human-snake encounters, particularly with venomous Porthidium lansbergii lansbergii. Given the limited knowledge of systemic envenomation effects and previous studies focusing only on early murine symptoms, this investigation aimed to describe the time-course physiopathology of P. lansbergii lansbergii envenomation following intramuscular injection in vivo. Methods: Venom was inoculated in the gastrocnemius muscles of Swiss Webster mice, and blood, urine, and tissue samples were taken at different times to evaluate lethality and biochemical markers of renal function and oxidative stress. Results: This study reports the first intramuscular LD50 for P. lansbergii lansbergii venom at 24.83 mg/Kg. Administering 80% of this LD50 induced early signs of renal injury, evidenced by urinary biomarkers over 24 h. The antioxidant activity was found at low levels in kidney tissue throughout the evaluated time post-envenomation. Malondialdehyde activity increased at the earliest point, while proinflammatory activity increased later. Urine metabolomics revealed elevated taurine and allantoin in the envenomed groups. Discussion: Compensatory mechanisms in response to oxidative stress and tissue damage induced by the venom were evident in the envenomed mice over the evaluated time. However, histological analysis revealed evidence of pro-inflammatory processes occurring only at early times. Metabolomic analyses of urine samples identified taurine as a potential early biomarker of elevated oxidative stress and protein and creatinine levels. Conclusions: P. lansbergii lansbergii venom induces alterations in murine renal tissue, affecting urinary biomarkers of kidney function within hours post-envenomation. Delayed proinflammatory effects may suggest an antioxidant imbalance in the envenomed mice, with unknown long-term effects. Further research on the role of oxidative stress and inflammation in renal structure and function following envenomation is necessary, emphasizing the need for prompt clinical management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Snake bite is a major cause of mortality in the Indian subcontinent. The condition is fraught with the problem of under reporting. Most bites in India are caused by the "Big 4 species," based on this, the anti–snake venom (ASV) is also sourced from these species only. It has been observed that the venom of snakes from different regions respond differently to it, as is sourced mainly from snakes of southern region of India. We present a case of a saw-scaled viper (SSV) bite, where the patient had unusual presentation of thrombotic microangiopathy (TMA) along with venom-induced consumption coagulopathy (VICC). The patient was resistant to ASV and finally succumbed. The snake was identified as Echis carinatus sochureki (a subspecies of SSV). This case highlights that VICC is the commonest presentation in a SSV bite, rather than disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC). The organ failure in such bites is due to rare coexistence of TMA (especially in an E carinatus sochureki bite) and should not be attributed to DIC. It also identifies that the polyvalent ASV produced in India is not effective against E carinatus sochureki bite. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study presents a new optimization algorithm called Spider-Tailed Horned Viper Optimization (STHVO), inspired by the spider-tailed horned viper. The viper's unique hunting strategy, which involves using its spider-like tail to attract prey, serves as the basis for this algorithm. STHVO incorporates two key processes: exploration and exploitation. Exploration allows the algorithm to search broadly for potential solutions, similar to how the viper moves through varied terrains in search of prey. Exploitation refines these solutions, akin to the snake focusing on its target once it has been lured. STHVO was rigorously tested across twenty-three benchmark functions, including unimodal and multimodal test suites. These benchmarks provide a comprehensive framework for assessing the algorithm's performance. The results showed that STHVO effectively balances exploration and exploitation, consistently finding high-quality solutions and outperforming a dozen established metaheuristic algorithms on most benchmarks. The algorithm's superior performance in both theoretical and practical contexts highlights its robustness and versatility. Overall, STHVO offers a novel, nature-inspired approach to optimization, proving to be a powerful tool for achieving optimal solutions across diverse applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: This study aimed to analyse the epidemiological patterns of paediatric snake bites in Sri Lanka over a 4-year period (2020–2024). Methods: A multi-centre, retrospective observational study was conducted from June 2020 to June 2024 across nine governmental hospitals in seven provinces of Sri Lanka. Data were collected based on 757 children presenting with snake bites. The snake bites were analysed based on age, gender, and seasonal variations. Data on the type of snake involved, geographic variations and the temporal trends in snake bite occurrences were also analysed. Results: The mean age of the 757 children recruited to the study was 10.3 years (SD—5.00, range—0.1–17 years). Males (57.7%) were significantly more affected than females (42.3%) (p < 0.05). Visual identification confirmed the snake species in 58.4% of cases. The hump-nosed viper (16.7%), Russell's viper (14.7%), and common krait (12.9%) were the most common medically important snakes identified in the study. Seasonal peaks in snake bites occurred in May–July and November–December. An increasing trend in snake bite incidence was noted over the first three years, with a slight decline in the final year. Conclusion: Paediatric snake bites in Sri Lanka show significant age, gender, and seasonal patterns. Targeted public health interventions are needed to mitigate the impact on children. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Snakebites are a significant health issue, especially in tropical and subtropical regions. Envenomation from snakebites is a clinical emergency requiring prompt treatment. Recently, a new species of blunt‐nosed viper, Macrovipera razii, was identified in central and southern Iran through morphological and molecular studies. This large, dangerous viper can deliver substantial amounts of venom. Following reports to the Faculty of Health at Shiraz University of Medical Science (SUMS), the identification of venomous snakes involved in envenomation cases in Fars province was undertaken. Approximately 20 snakes were captured and presented by locals, while others provided photos. Despite some information being photo‐based, the data highlighted the significant role of this viper in envenomation cases. Macrovipera razii is now recorded from 12 counties in Fars province. One incident involved a male bitten in Shiraz, and another case led to a male needing limb amputation. This study emphasizes the importance of this newly described viper in recent snakebite envenomations in the region and reviews its distribution within the Fars province. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The South American bushmaster Lachesis muta is currently considered a valid taxon with no recognized subspecies. However, its wide distribution with discontinuous populations, the restricted sampling of molecular data in previous studies, and the inherent difficulty in obtaining diagnostic data, preclude a detailed evaluation of the taxonomic status of this taxon. In this study, we use high-resolution genomics, as well as venomic, morphological, and ecological data to infer the speciation processes involved in the evolutionary history of L. muta populations. Our data recognize the Amazon populations as L. muta and the Atlantic Forest populations as L. rhombeata. Lachesis rhombeata has lower genetic diversity than L. muta and we recommend a critical evaluation to include this species in the national and international red lists of endangered species. Moreover, we propose classifying the L. rhombeata population from the Baturité massif (Ceará state) as an evolutionarily significant unit (ESU) for conservation and we also found genetic substructure within L. muta populations. We expect our results will contribute to the taxonomic stability of the Neotropical fauna and highlight the urgency of protecting Atlantic Forest populations of Lachesis species and, consequently, the landscape that this species and related biota inhabit. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Accidents caused by snakes constitute a serious public health problem in Latin America and worldwide. The situation in the Brazilian Amazon region is neglected, resulting in the highest incidence of cases per capita in the country. Furthermore, the distance from urban areas makes it difficult for the population to access timely and effective medical care, including antivenom treatment. The Brazilian Amazon is characterised by high ethnic and cultural diversity, yet it lacks robust epidemiological information that would allow for the development of surveillance and prevention policies. This study aimed to assess the epidemiological profile of individuals affected by snakebite accidents from 2007 to 2021 in a poorly studied region of the Brazilian Amazon. Methods: To assess the relationship between snakebite accidents, rainfall and river flood levels, cross‐correlation functions were employed. Data from the public healthcare system database was used for this analysis. Results: The results indicate that the study area experiences a snakebite rate 10 times greater than the Brazilian average and double that of other Amazonian regions. The most affected victims consist of adult males residing in rural areas, with snakebite accidents being more common during the rainy season. Viperid snakes were responsible for most bites, with the lower limbs being the most common location of injury. The data revealed a positive correlation between the number of snakebite accidents both rainfall and fluvial data. Conclusions: The accident peak coincides with the Brazil nut harvest season, a highly significant forest product for the economy of rural communities. Our data reinforces the need for public policies focused on environmental education and prevention, such as the use of boots and leg guards. These preventive measures have the potential to reduce the number of snakebites accidents by approximately 85%. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Vipera walser is a recently assessed species of North-Western Italian Alps, that has been regarded as an isolated population of V. berus until 2016, when it has been identified as a separate taxonomical unit according to molecular markers. Due to its restricted and fragmented range and the potential threat of climate change in mountain systems, it complies with the IUCN criteria to be classified as EN. In order to investigate, in part, the health status of this taxon, we have performed blood smears to describe whether a haematological parameter such as leukocytes is consistent with those of more widespread viperids of the Italian peninsula. Overall, we sampled 20 Walser's Vipers across the species range and characterised leukocyte formula. We found that lymphocytes were the most common (~70% of total leukocytes). Eosinophils and heterophils were less abundant, while neutrophils and monocytes are the least represented. Our data is in accordance with that of other European viperids. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite the abundant data on habitat use of Vipera ammodytes, most studies are purely descriptive, merely listing the habitats in which the species is most often found. More complete studies evaluating the habitat preference of the species are lacking. The intraspecific variation (i.e., interpopulation or seasonal) in habitat and microhabitat utilization of the species also remains a poorly studied topic. In the current study, we assessed the general patterns of habitat and microhabitat use of V. ammodytes and their interpopulation and seasonal variations, based on habitat/microhabitat availability. To achieve that, we studied five different populations along a latitudinal gradient in western Bulgaria. In all of the studied areas, V. ammodytes showed a clear preference for various stony and rocky habitats and microhabitats, overgrown with herbaceous and shrub vegetation, while it avoided bare habitats, dark deciduous forests as well as cultivated agricultural lands. There were clear interpopulation and seasonal variations in habitat and microhabitat preference and spatial niche utilization. Our results suggest that habitat and microhabitat use of V. ammodytes depend on a combination of many factors such as season, locally specific characteristics like habitat structure and availability, population dynamics, food availability, physical and microclimatic conditions, and possibly on the extent of the interspecific competition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although data on Vipera ammodytes habitat use are abundant, most studies are descriptive, only listing the type of sites where the species was found. Because the species' circadian activity varies between different seasons in relation to the environmental conditions, it would be expected that vipers' use of various sites would be highly dependent on these seasonal variations in activity patterns. However, studies on this topic are lacking. We studied five populations in western Bulgaria from 2014 to 2017. Habitat and microhabitat selection of Vipera ammodytes depended on its circadian activity patterns. This dependence was much more evident during the summer when the use of different site types was influenced by vipers' activity patterns. During the spring and autumn, only the utilization of the fine-scale characteristics among a particular site type was influenced by activity. The observed variations could be attributed to seasonal differing thermal conditions. Lower ambient temperatures in spring and autumn allow vipers to use the same site types throughout the day and only make short movements across them when hiding in shelters. Because of the high ambient temperatures during summer, using the same types of sites throughout the day is impossible, so during the hottest hours, vipers move to neighbouring sites with more appropriate microclimatic conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Melanism in Echis carinatus has been observed on Sheedvar Island in the Persian Gulf. A comparative analysis between melanistic and non-melanistic individuals showed no significant morphological or genetic differences. The evolution of melanism in E. carinatus may serve as camouflage or aid in predator avoidance, similar to other nocturnal viper species. However, a deeper understanding of the ecological role of melanism in nocturnal vertebrates, including E. carinatus, requires further investigation to clarify its broader significance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Acta Zoologica Lilloana is the property of Fundacion Miguel Lillo and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Acta Zoologica Lilloana is the property of Fundacion Miguel Lillo and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

In urban and suburban areas, wildlife and people are often in close quarters, leading to human-wildlife interactions (HWI). Understanding how wildlife interacts with humans and the built environment is critical as urbanization contributes to habitat change and fragmentation globally. The environmental drivers that influence HWIs are largely unknown in some systems, however, especially across multiple spatial scales. Using location and species data from a business that relocates snakes across the Phoenix metropolitan area (Arizona, USA), we found the most frequently removed were venomous (family Viperidae, e.g., rattlesnakes). Nonvenomous snakes were also removed (family Colubridae, e.g., gophersnakes). Using these records, we investigated taxa-specific habitat relationships at two spatial scales. The neighborhood scale focused on front yard measures of cover and vegetation classes, and the landscape scale focused on remote-sensed variables related to vegetation indices and degree of urbanization. Both analyses compared areas where snakes were removed to random locations in the city to evaluate used and available locations of snakes. At the neighborhood scale, snake removals (n = 59) occurred in yards with abundant vegetation and debris cover opportunities compared to random locations. At the landscape scale, snake removal locations (n = 764) had taxa-specific differences, with nonvenomous snakes removed from areas of higher urbanization than venomous snakes, a pattern was likely related to differences in life history and behavior. Environmental variables associated with HWI can vary across different spatial scales. Understanding these environmental characteristics associated with snake removals from residential can focus management activities to reduce potential human-snake conflict. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: The VipGrade® is a French electronic clinical tool that was created in 2022 to help frontline clinicians grade envenomations due to European Vipera spp. and decide whether to use specific immunotherapy. The aim of this study was to test VipGrade® on a paediatric retrospective cohort (2001–2022) of cases of Vipera spp. envenomation and evaluate the concordance with the initial grading assigned by clinicians on admission. Methods: For each child in the cohort (n = 116), VipGrade® was applied by a single physician unaware of the initial clinical grading. We compared VipGrade® results with those obtained at the time of admission using the Audebert-Boels classification system. Results: The proportion of discrepancies represented 26% of initial grade I (n = 39) cases, meaning that 10 children were upgraded to grade IIa (n = 9) or IIb (n = 1). The main reason was the VipGrade® cut-off for oedema size (4 cm) to distinguish grade I from grade II, while oedema evaluation using the Audebert-Boels clinical classification differs in this regard. The global correlation κ score was equal to 0.78; 0.71 with the exception of grades 0 (which is not usually a diagnostic issue); 0.64 considering both results for young children (age <6 years, n = 51) and 0.79 for older ones. Discussion: Upgrading cases inappropriately could have a major impact on treatment and the use of the antivenom. Even if specific immunotherapy with Viperfav® (MicroPharm Ltd, Newcastle Emlyn, Carmarthenshire, SA38 9BY, United Kingdom) is safe, its use when inappropriate cannot be justified, particularly in times of supply shortage, as we have experienced over the last 10 years. Conclusion: The current version of the VipGrade® electronic clinical tool produces a different distribution of envenomation grades, notably in grade I by overgrading a substantial number of cases. We suggest creating a paediatric version that incorporates the same oedema evaluation method as the Audebert-Boels clinical classification but also includes a more refined definition of "local or regional" oedema. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cytogenetic studies were carried out on 11 species of Indian Snakes collected from Jammu region using Air Drying Technique of Gorman et al 1979. Among all E. johni and E. conicus belonging to primitive family Boidae exhibits diploid number, 2n=34 with undifferentiated sex chromosomes in both male and female. In family Colubridae (an intermediate family) there exist huge variation as far as sex chromosomes are concerned i.e Ptyas mucosus has 2n=34, Oligodon arnensis has 2n=44 with undifferentiated sex chromosomes, Lycodon arnensis and Boiga trigonata both have 2n=36 with differentiated sex chromosomes(as per literature) while Natrix stolata has 2n=36 with distinct 'ZW' female. In Family Elapidae Naja naja naja has 2n=38 with undifferentiated sex chromosomes but Bungarus caerulus has 2n=44 with 'ZW' female having submetacentric 'Z' and largest telocentric 'W' but members of family Viperidae viz. Vipera russelli and Echinis carinatus both have 2n=36 with well differentiated 'ZW' where 'W' is smaller and 'Z' larger representing final step in the evolution of sex chromosome. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Snake venoms are intricate mixtures of enzymes and bioactive factors that induce a range of detrimental effects in afflicted hosts. Certain Viperids, including Bothrops jararacussu, harbor C-type lectins (CTLs) known for their modulation of a variety of host cellular responses. In this study, we isolated and purified BjcuL, a CTL from B. jararacussu venom and investigated its impact on endothelial cell behavior, contrasting it with human galectin-1 (Gal-1), a prototype member of the galectin family with shared β-galactoside-binding activity. We found that BjcuL binds to human dermal microvascular endothelial cells (HMECs) in a concentration- and carbohydrate-dependent fashion and reprograms the function of these cells, favoring a pro-inflammatory and pro-coagulant endothelial phenotype. In light of the quest for universal antagonists capable of mitigating the harmful consequences of snake venoms, BjcuL emerges as a promising target to be blocked in order to regulate pathological endothelial cell responses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Biotropica is the property of Wiley-Blackwell and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Simple Summary: Doñana (Spain) is a region of notable biodiversity richness, threatened by landscape transformation and climate change. Lataste's viper (Vipera latastei), a snake endemic to the Iberian Peninsula, has one of the few remaining coastal populations in Doñana, which is likely to be declining. Our study shows that the viper's suitable habitat has been shrinking over time toward the coastal area. By analyzing data from the past 50 years, we found that rising temperatures and habitat changes have led to a sharp decline in suitable environments for the species. These findings underscore the urgent need for targeted conservation measures to protect this threatened snake. Doñana (southern Spain), a region of notable biodiversity richness, is highly threatened by ongoing landscape transformation and climate change. We investigated the local effect of these anthropogenic factors on the temporal range dynamics of Lataste's viper (Vipera latastei), an Iberian endemic Mediterranean reptile that has apparently become rare over the years in Doñana. Using ecological niche-based models, based on climatic and remote sensing variables, we analyzed historical (1959–1999) and contemporary (2000–2022) records of the species to assess range shifts and identify environmental factors that may influence them. Our results show that V. latastei is mostly restricted to the coastal region of Doñana and that one temperature variable is the most important factor explaining this distribution pattern in both periods. Additional climatic and vegetation variables play a role in its historical distribution, but they become less important in contemporary times, suggesting a niche simplification over time. We found 30.5% of reduction in the species suitable area from historical to contemporary conditions, a reduction that would be even greater (83.37%) in the absence of niche shift. These findings underscore the species' heightened vulnerability to ongoing environmental changes and highlight the urgent need for targeted conservation strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A fragmentary maxilla and isolated vertebrae of a viperid snake were found in the Lower Pleistocene deposits of the Taurida cave, Crimean Peninsula. The snake is assigned to Vipera cf. renardi based on the morphology of the maxilla. This is the first unquestionable fossil record of the Vipera ursinii-renardi complex dispersed into Crimea earlier than previously supposed, already in the Early Pleistocene. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Saw-scaled vipers (SSV) of the genus Echis (Viperidae: Ophidia) primarily inhabit tropics. In Sri Lanka, E. carinatus is densely populated in the Northern Province where they account for over 50% of the local snakebites. Although it was initially reported as a unique Sri Lankan subspecies named E. c. sinhaleyus, its existence was later questioned, urging the need for more detail studies. The present study examined morphological characters and sexual dimorphism in 30 specimens (17 males and 13 females) collected from Kilinochchi and Jaffna Districts in the Northern Province, using 12 mensural and 17 meristic traits, updating Deraniyagala’s report of 1951. Results showed that the adult females have longer snout to vent length (SVL) than that of males (280.34±43.32 vs. 240.88±27.03), revealing a positive sexual dimorphism index. Males had a greater TL/SVL ratio (x̄̄=13.89±0.68) than that of females (x̄̄=10.65±085). ANCOVA test retrieved most accurate and an independent significant effect of ‘sex’ on TL while SVL serving as the covariate. Males and females shared consistent meristic characters, except for number of dorsal scales at the lower part of the body, ventral and sub-caudal scales. There were more ventral scales in females (145.54±3.31) than that of males (138.41±4.08), and sub-caudal scales were higher in number in males (28.94±1.85) than that of females (25.85±2.82). Although, there were some colour pattern variations of the specimens, (head pattern and ventral pattern), they were not sex-associated and distributed evenly between males and females. This is the first study to illustrate the detail morphometric characters; mensural traits; meristic traits, and color patterns and to demonstrate the sexual dimorphism in the SSV from Sri Lanka, with noticeable differences in the snoutvent length (SVL), tail length (TL), ventral scales, and sub-caudal scales between male and female. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim: To study the safety profile and effectiveness of Anti Snake venom (ASV) in western India Methods: This retrospective study gathered safety, and clinicoepidemiologicaldata on 157 patients admitted at Shri Sainath Hospital, Dharampur, Gujarat, from July 2022 to February 2023. Results: Majority were bitten between August and November. There were 88 males, 5 to70 yrs. (mean 39.14), 69 females, 2 to 70 years (mean 40.32). 6 of these were children ranging from 2 to 12 years.134 were agricultural labourers. 120 cases were analysable. 17 had neurotoxicity and 103 had haemotoxicity. Mean (SD) number of vials used was 10.1(6.2), time to discontinue ASV was 3.0(5.2) hours, and duration of hospital stay was 4.5(2.6) days. Patients bitten by saw scaled vipers were discharged early. In Russel’s Viper bites, number of vials used, was higher if the bite to needle time was less than 6 hours 9 patients suffered 24 adverse events, with two possible cases of anaphylaxis. One case had urticaria, itching and tachycardia as a triad. The remaining were isolated events of mild urticaria, itching, tachycardia, hypotension, cough, rigor. Conclusion: 10.1 vials were needed on average for control of envenomation with no fatalities or severe comorbidities. Adverse events were reported in 5.7% cases. The ASV brand used was well tolerated. Patients who were brought late suffered more renal complications [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rattlesnakes play important roles in their ecosystems by regulating prey populations, are involved in complex coevolutionary dynamics with their prey, and exhibit a variety of unusual adaptations, including maternal care, heat-sensing pit organs, hinged fangs, and medically-significant venoms. The western rattlesnake (Crotalus oreganus) is one of the widest ranging rattlesnake species, with a distribution from British Columbia, where it is listed as threatened, to Baja California and east across the Great Basin to western Wyoming, Colorado and New Mexico. Here, we report a new reference genome assembly for one of six currently recognized subspecies, C. oreganus helleri, as part of the California Conservation Genomics Project (CCGP). Consistent with the reference genomic sequencing strategy of the CCGP, we used Pacific Biosciences HiFi long reads and Hi-C chromatin-proximity sequencing technology to produce a de novo assembled genome. The assembly comprises a total of 698 scaffolds spanning 1,564,812,557 base pairs, has a contig N50 of 64.7 Mb, a scaffold N50 of 110.8 Mb, and BUSCO complete score of 90.5%. This reference genome will be valuable for studies on the genomic basis of venom evolution and variation within Crotalus, in resolving the taxonomy of C. oreganus and its relatives, and for the conservation and management of rattlesnakes in general.

Following up on our previous work on vibrationally resolved electronic absorption spectra including the effect of vibrational pre-excitation [von Cosel et al., J. Chem. Phys. 147, 164116 (2017)], we present a combined theoretical and experimental study of two-photon-induced vibronic transitions in polyatomic molecules that are probed in the VIbrationally Promoted Electronic Resonance experiment using two-photon excitation (2P-VIPER). In order to compute vibronic spectra, we employ time-independent and time-dependent methods based on the evaluation of Franck–Condon overlap integrals and Fourier transformations of time-domain correlation functions, respectively. The time-independent approach uses a generalized version of the FCclasses method, while the time-dependent approach relies on the analytical evaluation of Gaussian moments within the harmonic approximation, including Duschinsky rotation effects. For the Coumarin 6 dye, two-dimensional 2P-VIPER experiments involving excitation to the lowest-lying singlet excited state (S1) are presented and compared with corresponding one-photon VIPER spectra. In both cases, coumarin ring modes and a CO stretch mode show VIPER activity, albeit with different relative intensities. Selective pre-excitation of these modes leads to a pronounced redshift of the low-frequency edge of the electronic absorption spectrum, which is a prerequisite for the VIPER experiment. Theoretical analysis underscores the role of interference between Franck–Condon and Herzberg–Teller effects in the two-photon experiment, which is at the root of the observed intensity distribution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Snakebite statistics in Sudan are lacking despite the high estimated burden of the problem. One study in Sudan reported the presence of 17 medically significant snakes belonging to three major families: Burrowing asps, Elapidae, and Viperidae. These snakes usually become abundant during and after the rainy season, and most snakebite victims are farm workers. This study was set out based on the observed snakebite management, poor outcomes and lack of information on the healthcare provider's knowledge of this serious, deadly medical and health condition in snakebite-endemic regions of Sudan. Materials and methods: In August 2022, a descriptive cross-sectional survey was conducted involving 394 medical and healthcare providers in snakebite-endemic regions of Sudan (Gaddarif, Sinnar, Khartoum, and Kassala). A validated questionnaire was used. It consisted of seven sections addressing the study population demographic characteristics, knowledge of snakes, snakebites, and their management. Data analysis used various statistical tests using Microsoft Excel and the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 20 (IBM SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL) was done. Results: Among the 394 participants (44.7% males, 53.3% females), 58.1% demonstrated adequate knowledge of snakes, and 45.3% exhibited adequate knowledge of snakebites. A mere 25.9% received training in snakebite management, with 60.4% possessing adequate knowledge in this domain. Only 14% expressed high confidence in managing snakebites, and 40.9% reported having protocols for snakebite management at their health facilities. Conclusion: The study highlighted the inadequacy of healthcare providers' knowledge in snakebite-endemic areas in Sudan regarding snakes, snakebites and snakebites management. Urgent interventions, such as intensive continuing professional education and training, are essential to address this neglected medical and health problem. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Standardized estimates of a species' distribution before and after translocation can inform whether a reintroduction project was effective at population establishment. Occupancy modeling has grown in popularity to estimate the distribution of cryptic animals, including viperid snakes, because it can account for variations in detection probability (P) generated by site-, survey-, and population-specific factors. We estimated occupancy and P in an endangered subpopulation of the cryptic North American pit-vipers (Eastern Massasaugas, Sistrurus catenates; hereafter Massasauga[s]) in preparation for future conservation translocations. During a 6-yr period at the Ojibway Prairie Complex and Greater Park Ecosystem, in Ontario, Canada, we conducted more than 1740 repeated standardized surveys at 40 plots (each ca. 2.4 ha) by using two methods (visual encounter and artificial cover object), across three seasons (spring, summer, and fall), and with different types of search effort (single vs. team surveys) and analyzed a suite of detection histories by using occupancy modeling. Massasaugas were detected at only 10% of survey sites (n = 4/40), and the species was presumed undetected at one additional site after accounting for P (estimated occupancy, 13%). The P for Massasaugas ranged from 0.01 to 0.73 and was most strongly influenced by search effort, season, and trap response (i.e., "trap-happy" individuals repeatedly found in the same locations). The detection probability was significantly inflated during surveys when there was at least one trap-happy snake present. Across top ranking models (based on Akaike's Information Criterion scores), team visual encounter surveys in spring and summer, and conducting at least two surveys per week, generated an average P ≥ 0.15 after accounting for a trap response. Conversely, fall surveys and artificial cover object surveys generated a P < 0.15. Our study provides direction to other conservation practitioners working with small populations of cryptic snakes and will inform monitoring regimes for future conservation translocations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Viruses in the subfamily Serpentovirinae (order Nidovirales, family Tobaniviridae) can cause significant morbidity and mortality in captive snakes, but documented infections have been limited to snakes of the Boidae, Colubridae, Homalopsidae, and Pythonidae families. Infections can either be subclinical or associated with oral and/or respiratory disease. Beginning in June 2019, a population of over 150 confiscated snakes was screened for serpentovirus as part of a quarantine disease investigation. Antemortem oropharyngeal swabs or lung tissue collected postmortem were screened for serpentovirus by PCR, and 92/165 (56.0%) of snakes tested were positive for serpentovirus. Serpentoviruses were detected in fourteen species of Viperidae native to Asia, Africa, and South America and a single species of Elapidae native to Australia. When present, clinical signs included thin body condition, abnormal behavior or breathing, stomatitis, and/or mortality. Postmortem findings included variably severe inflammation, necrosis, and/or epithelial proliferation throughout the respiratory and upper gastrointestinal tracts. Genetic characterization of the detected serpentoviruses identified four unique viral clades phylogenetically distinct from recognized serpentovirus genera. Pairwise uncorrected distance analysis supported the phylogenetic analysis and indicated that the viper serpentoviruses likely represent the first members of a novel genus in the subfamily Serpentovirinae. The reported findings represent the first documentation of serpentoviruses in venomous snakes (Viperidae and Elapidae), greatly expanding the susceptible host range for these viruses and highlighting the importance of serpentovirus screening in all captive snake populations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We report Bungarus suzhenae Chen, Shi, Vogel, Ding & Shi, 2021 and Ovophis zayuensis (Jiang, 1977) for the first time from India. Specimens of B. suzhenae and O. zayuensis were collected during our field surveys in north (Arunachal Pradesh) and south (Nagaland-Manipur border) of the river Brahmaputra. Species identity was supported by partial cytochrome b (cyt b), and 16s mitochondrial gene. We provide a detailed morphological description and a key to the two genera of this region. This report extends the westernmost distribution of B. suzhenae by ca. 300 km from Myanmar, and the southernmost range of O. zayuensis by 170 km from Tibet. Until now eight species of Bungarus and only one Ovophis species have been reported from India. Ovophis species are recently reported to be medically important venomous snakes whose venom properties have not been investigated in depth. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The palaeofauna of the Quaternary is mostly known from the mammals' record, while the herpetofauna is less represented. In the same way, in northeastern Argentina reptile fossils records are scarce, usually represented by preliminary communications. This paper focuses on the study of herpetofauna remains from the Isla El Disparito archaeological site. The faunal materials collected at the site revealed an increase in taxonomic diversity related to the Quaternary herpetofauna in the IED site, with over 50% of the bone remains represented by anurans and at least six recognized squamates taxa. The purpose of this study is to properly identify these new records of herpetofauna remains from northeastern Argentina during the Holocene as well as to provide a dichotomous key of postcranial remains for identifying extant squamates taxa in other Quaternary sites from Argentina. The identified squamate assemblage includes the lizard Ophiodes sp., the snake families Typhlopidae, Dipsadidae, Viperidae and undetermined colubroids, along with anuran bone remains (Anura indet. and ?Hylidae). Additionally, the findings contribute to a better understanding of the herpetological assemblage in Argentina, providing insights into the composition of South American squamates during the Quaternary. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract.— Phylogenomics allows us to uncover the historical signal of evolutionary processes through time and estimate phylogenetic networks accounting for these signals. Insight from genome-wide data further allows us to pinpoint the contributions to phylogenetic signal from hybridization, introgression, and ancestral polymorphism across the genome. Here, we focus on how these processes have contributed to phylogenetic discordance among rattlesnakes (genera Crotalus and Sistrurus), a group for which there are numerous conflicting phylogenetic hypotheses based on a diverse array of molecular datasets and analytical methods. We address the instability of the rattlesnake phylogeny using genomic data generated from transcriptomes sampled from nearly all known species. These genomic data, analyzed with coalescent and network-based approaches, reveal numerous instances of rapid speciation where individual gene trees conflict with the species tree. Moreover, the evolutionary history of rattlesnakes is dominated by incomplete speciation and frequent hybridization, both of which have likely influenced past interpretations of phylogeny. We present a new framework in which the evolutionary relationships of this group can only be understood in light of genome-wide data and network-based analytical methods. Our data suggest that network radiations, like those seen within the rattlesnakes, can only be understood in a phylogenomic context, necessitating similar approaches in our attempts to understand evolutionary history in other rapidly radiating species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Islands have played a key role in our understanding of rapid evolution. A large body of literature has examined morphological changes in response to insularity and isolation, which has yielded useful generalizations about how animals can adapt to live in very small geographic areas. However, understanding the evolution of morphological variation in insular populations often requires detailed data sets on longitudinal patterns of growth and development, and such studies typically necessitate long‐term mark‐recapture on a large sample of individuals. Rattlesnakes provide a unique opportunity to address some of these difficulties because the addition of rattle segments to the rattle string occurs with regular periodicity and their size directly correlates with the body size of the snake at the time of the ecdysis cycle generating the segment. Here, we used a large database of rattle segment sizes recorded from island (Isla Coronado Sur, Baja California, Mexico) and mainland (Camp Pendleton, California, United States) populations of Western Rattlesnakes (Crotalus oreganus and C. o. caliginis) that separated approximately 10,000 years ago to compare body sizes at different ecdysis cycles, which allowed us to assess differences in growth rates and patterns of sexual size dimorphism. Our results show that rattlesnakes on Isla Coronado Sur appear to be born smaller and grow more slowly than their mainland counterparts, resulting in a "dwarfed" island population. However, despite significant differences in body size, both populations exhibited the same degree of sexual dimorphism. Our study demonstrates the potential to use rattle characteristics to recover detailed estimates of fundamental demographic parameters. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The genus Vipera encompasses most species of medically significant venomous snakes of Europe, with Italy harbouring four of them. Envenomation by European vipers can result in severe consequences, but underreporting and the absence of standardised clinical protocols hinder effective snakebite management. This study provides an updated, detailed set of guidelines for the management and treatment of Vipera snakebite tailored for Italian clinicians. It includes taxonomic keys for snake identification, insights into viper venom composition, and recommendations for clinical management. Emphasis is placed on quick and reliable identification of medically relevant snake species, along with appropriate first aid measures. Criteria for antivenom administration are outlined, as well as indications on managing potential side effects. While the protocol is specific to Italy, its methodology can potentially be adapted for other European countries, depending on local resources. The promotion of comprehensive data collection and collaboration among Poison Control Centres is advocated to optimise envenomation management protocols and improve the reporting of epidemiological data concerning snakebite at the country level. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives We conducted a comparison between the nonnormalized dilute Russell viper venom time (dRVVT) screen/confirm ratio (SCR) in patient plasma and the normalized SCR obtained using reference pooled plasma. The aim was to assess the impact of normalization on the lupus anticoagulant (LA) status in our patient population. Methods In our retrospective analysis, we included a total of 464 patients who underwent dRVVT testing. For those with positive screens, mixing studies were performed, followed by confirmatory testing. Additionally, the dRVVT of reference pooled plasma was measured. A positive conventional (nonnormalized) or normalized SCR was defined as an SCR greater than or equal to 1.2. Results In total, 5.6% (26) of the 464 samples tested were confirmed positive for LA by both methods, out of which 12 had a clinical history of thrombosis. Although a statistically significant difference between the 2 groups (P =.0096) was found, the magnitude of absolute mean SCR differences (bias) was 0.04 (2.51%). There was 100% concordance of testing results between the 2 groups. Conclusions The lupus anticoagulant status by the dRVVT assay was not changed based on normalization. Normalization was of no clinical benefit in our patient population; therefore, there was no need for the extra calculation step. Normalization may be useful for intermethod and interlaboratory studies and not for within-method LA detection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Two tablets from the the Michael C. Carlos Museum at Emory University contain excerpts of literary texts celebrating Šulgi: an excerpt of the praise poem Šulgi A, with two previously unknown lines, and a manuscript from a new hymn to Šulgi, paralleling Ni 13227. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

For decades, the evolutionary role of melanism in reptiles has been highly debated. According to the thermal melanism hypothesis, melanistic phenotypes should provide thermal advantages, thus positively impacting various biological aspects of these individuals. Nevertheless, these benefits seem to be countered by environmental constraints and predatory pressure. Here, we mapped for the first time the distribution of the melanistic phenotypes in the highly polymorphic asp viper (Vipera aspis). We focused our research effort on the Italian peninsula, where this species reaches its highest level of taxonomic diversity with three currently described subspecies. Furthermore, we investigated via bioclimatic niche modelling, the influence of a wide array of bioclimatic variables on the distribution of melanism in Italian asp vipers. In general, our results seem to support the implications of the thermal melanism hypothesis, highlighting the central influence of mean annual temperature and elevation on the geographic distribution of melanistic V. aspis. At the finest scale, our analyses have highlighted a distinction in bioclimatic niches among the three assessed subspecies. However, further fine-scale investigations are needed in order to exclude the potential influence of latitude and elevation on the observed the intersubspecific bioclimatic niche segregation pattern. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Bothrops atrox is a pit viper with a loreal pit organ, and its embryological development remains undescribed. Here, we provide a comprehensive description of the embryology of B. atrox, focusing on the loreal pit organ and cephalic scales. Results: We characterized 13 developmental stages of B. atrox based on external features consistent with the embryogenesis of previously described snake species. The loreal pit organ originates from the circumorbital region and migrates to its final position. In Crotalinae, the pit organ first becomes visible at stage 28, whereas in Pythonidae labial, pit organs appear at Stage 35. Pit organs evolved independently three times in Serpentes, encompassing Boidae, Pythonidae, and Crotalinae. Boidae lacks embryological information for pit organs. Furthermore, we observed that head scalation onset occurs at Stage 33 in B. atrox, with fusion of scales surrounding the loreal pit organ. Conclusions: The embryology of pit organs in Pythonidae and Boidae species remains poorly understood. Our detailed embryological descriptions are critical for proposing developmental scenarios for pit organs and guiding future research on these structures. Key Findings: We conducted a comprehensive characterization of thirteen embryonic stages in Bothrops atrox, focusing on external morphological features. Additionally, we investigated the development of the pit organ, comparing it across various snake species, and explored its evolutionary history within this group.Our results reveal four new early stages of organogenesis previously undescribed in any species of Bothrops.Our developmental data support previous theories based on molecular evidence, suggesting that the development of pit organs occurred independently in the Boidae, Pythonidae, and Crotalinae lineages. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This document provides information about the discovery of a new country record of the snake species Trimeresurus uetzi in India. The researchers found specimens in Mizoram University that did not match other known Trimeresurus species in the region but instead matched the characteristics of T. uetzi, a species previously only known from Myanmar. This finding extends the known range of T. uetzi and suggests potential cryptic diversity among green pit-vipers in northeastern India. The authors recommend further research and genetic data to confirm this discovery and reassess the systematics of Trimeresurus species in the Indo-Burma region. [Extracted from the article]

The thermal tolerance of ectotherms is a critical factor that influences their distribution, physiology, behaviour, and, ultimately, survival. Understanding the factors that shape thermal tolerance in these organisms is, therefore, of great importance for predicting their responses to forecasted climate warming. Here, we investigated the voluntary thermal maximum (VTmax) of nine grassland viper taxa and explored the factors that influence this trait. The small size of these vipers and the open landscape they inhabit render them particularly vulnerable to overheating and dehydration. We found that the VTmax of grassland vipers is influenced by environmental temperature, precipitation, short-wave flux, and individual body size, rather than by phylogenetic relatedness. Vipers living in colder environments exhibited a higher VTmax, contradicting the hypothesis that environmental temperature is positively related to VTmax. Our findings emphasize the importance of considering local to regional adaptations and environmental conditions when studying thermal physiology and the evolution of thermal tolerance in ectotherms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We describe the detection of Paranannizziopsis sp. fungus in a wild population of vipers in Europe. Fungal infections were severe, and 1 animal likely died from infection. Surveillance efforts are needed to better understand the threat of this pathogen to snake conservation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]