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The increasing mainstream adoption of immersive virtual reality (iVR) in education has triggered research about key variables explaining acceptance of iVR by teachers. In this study we adopted the UTAUT2 acceptance model as a theoretical framework enriched with the variable personal innovativeness. 379 Flemish secondary education teachers watched a video about iVR learning experiences, after which an online survey concerning their perceptions was administered. General linear modeling was performed to test the hypotheses. Results indicate performance expectancy, social influence, facilitating conditions, hedonic motivation and personal innovativeness to be significantly associated with behavioural intention to use. No moderating effect of age, gender or experience was observed. The results account for 54% of the variance in behavioural intention to use. The findings help to understand which factors are key in the acceptance of mobile iVR by secondary education teachers and might help defining successful iVR implementation strategies.

This study examines the effects of a design thinking intervention on first-year students' teamwork skills from a multi-actor perspective. A design thinking course was evaluated throughout a semester. Six-hundred-and-forty university students participated, guided by twenty-six facilitators. The students received in-class training and worked in multi-disciplinary teams to develop a solution for a real-life problem. In this quasi-experimental study, data were collected twice: in the middle (t1), and at the end (t2) of the course. Each time, students were rated by their teammates, themselves, and the course facilitator, using a rubric to map teamwork skills. The results show a significant improvement in teamwork skills, as consistently observed in the three ratings. The results also show a significant effect of sex on the improvement over time. Female students showed more considerable progress than male students. This study addresses researchers' demands regarding the lack of robust evidence to assess the impact of design thinking in higher education settings. Furthermore, building on the data from a large sample size and an intervention designed in a replicable way, this study contributes to the available empirical evidence that helps one to adopt and implement design thinking in universities to develop essential skills, such as teamwork.

Using the Opportunity-Propensity Model (Byrnes in Dev Rev 56:100911, 2020; Byrnes & Miller in Contemp Educ Psychol 32(4);599-629, 2007), the current study investigated which factors helped predicting children's home learning experiences during the COVID-19 pandemic, thereby examining differences between children with (DD; n = 779) and without (TD; n = 1443) developmental disorders. MANCOVA results indicated more negative experiences for DD children and their parents. SEM-results revealed the alignment between different teachers and autonomous motivation in children as the most important predictors for the outcome variables. Less predictors were significant for DD as compared to TD children which suggests other factors are at play in the DD group. Limitations, strengths and suggestions for future research are being discussed, together with some implications for classroom practices and remote learning approaches.

This study investigates the effects of using design thinking on students' problem solving and creativity skills, applying a constructivist learning theory. A course where students use design thinking for analyzing real problems and proposing a solution, was evaluated. The study involved 910 novice university students from different disciplines who worked in teams throughout the semester. Data were collected at three times during the semester, i.e. at the beginning (t0), in the middle (t1) and at the end (t2), after solving a short case study. Each time the problem solving and creativity skill of each student was rated by three different actors, i.e. the students themselves (self-evaluation), one peer and one teacher (facilitator). The objective of this study is to investigate whether the problem solving skills and creativity skills improved along the course, as rated by the three actors. A repeated measures ANOVA was used for the data analysis of this within-subjects design. Results show a significant improvement on students' problem solving and creativity skills, according to the three raters. Effect sizes were also calculated; in all cases the effect sizes from t0 to t1 were larger than t1 to t2. The multi-actor perspective of this study, the adoption of reliable and valid measures and the large sample size provide robust evidence that supports the implementation of design thinking in higher education curriculum for promoting key skills such as problem solving and creativity, demanded by labor markets. Finally, a discussion that puts forward an agenda for future research is presented.

This study investigates the impact of providing teacher feedback on answers to guiding questions in the online environment of a flipped classroom setting. Participants were second year bachelor students enrolled in the "Invertebrates" courses (N = 104) at the School of Education in CanTho University (Vietnam), and were randomly assigned to two research conditions: (1) With extra feedback (WEF, n = 52) and (2) No extra feedback (NEF, n = 52) in a flipped classroom setting. One way repeated measure ANOVA was used to analyze learning performance, self-efficacy beliefs, and appreciation of feedback. The findings reflect significantly higher learning performance of students studying in the WEF-condition. In addition, significant changes were observed in their self-efficacy beliefs and appreciation of feedback.

Ultrasound imaging is a dynamic imaging technique that uses high-frequency sound waves to capture live images of the structures beneath the skin. In addition to its growing use in diagnosis and interventions, ultrasound imaging has the potential to reinforce concepts in the undergraduate medical curriculum. However, research assessing the impact of ultrasound on anatomy learning and student cognition is scarce. The purpose of this study was to compare the impact of ultrasound-based instruction versus narrated videos on students' understanding of anatomical relationships, as well as the role of intrinsic motivation, self-efficacy beliefs, and students' attitudes in this process. A booster course on anterior leg and wrist anatomy was offered to second-year medical students. A randomized controlled trial with a cross-over design allocated students to either an ultrasound-based teaching condition (cohort A) or a narrated anatomy video condition (cohort B). Next, participants were crossed to the alternative intervention. At the start of the study (T0), baseline anatomy knowledge, intrinsic motivation, self-efficacy beliefs, and spatial ability were measured. After the first intervention (T1) and at the end of the study (T2), both cohorts were administered an anatomy test, an intrinsic motivation scale, and a self-efficacy scale. In addition, each student was asked to fill out a perception survey after the ultrasound intervention. Finally, building on the cross-over design, the most optimal sequence of interventions was examined. A total of 181 students participated (cohort A: n = 82, cohort B: n = 99). Both cohorts performed comparably on the baseline anatomy knowledge test, spatial ability test, intrinsic motivation, and self-efficacy scale. At T1, cohort B outperformed cohort A on the anatomy test (p = 0.019), although only a small effect size could be detected (Cohen's d = 0.34). Intrinsic motivation and self-efficacy of both cohorts were similar at T1. At T2, the anatomy test, intrinsic motivation, and self-efficacy scale did not reflect an effect after studying either sequence of the interventions. Students reported favorably about the ultrasound experience, but also mentioned a steep learning curve. Medical students found the hands-on ultrasound sessions to be valuable, increasing their interest in musculoskeletal anatomy and ultrasound imaging. However, the addition of ultrasound did not result in superior spatial anatomy understanding compared to watching anatomy videos. In addition, ultrasound teaching did not have a major effect on student cognition. Ultrasound-based teaching of musculoskeletal anatomy is regarded as difficult to learn, and therefore it is hypothesized that too high levels of cognitive load might explain the presented results.

This study investigated the effectiveness of clinical simulations (CS) as an instructional strategy to prepare student teachers to conduct parent-teacher conferences. A pre-test/post-test study was set up in order to study the impact of online (n = 181) and face-to-face CS (n = 95) on student teachers' parent-teacher communication competence (PTCC). Assessment of PTCC development was based on a video-based instrument and a self-efficacy scale. Results suggested that both types of CS are effective instructional strategies to improve student teachers' PTCC. Both student teachers' self-efficacy beliefs and situation-specific skills regarding parent-teacher communication improved. Implications and directions for future research are discussed.

The use of English as a medium of instruction (EMI) in higher education is considered a vehicle in non-English-speaking countries for the purpose of internationalization, enhancing students' employability, and international competition. Many higher education institutions in Europe adapted their curriculum and started teaching in English, while enrolling international students from Erasmus programs and non-European countries. This study builds on an EMI course set within a Belgian university. Six students whose second language was English were interviewed to identify and explore their motivation, difficulties, and instructional support as it relates to their spoken interaction during the class. The findings revealed that (a) students' motivation and willingness to communicate during English-as-a-second-language spoken interaction was related to their English language self-efficacy, the study topic, and the learning environment; (b) students' spoken interaction seemed restricted due to difficulties including academic language use, understanding the academic content, and their attitudes toward the learning activity; and (c) instructional support, namely, social-emotional, cognitive, and language support, was perceived by students to boost their willingness to communicate and confidence to be involved in spoken interaction.

Student's individual, family, and teacher factors play a significant role in children's reading development. However, the mechanisms by which these critical factors jointly contribute to children's reading comprehension achievement are poorly understood. The present research aimed at developing a multilevel comprehensive model which shows critical correlates, involving these factors, of reading comprehension of Chinese secondary school students. A random sample of 1,322 students, nested in 27 classes, was taken from five secondary schools. The student-level variables included student's gender, autonomous reading motivation, controlled reading motivation, metacognitive awareness of reading strategies (MARS), and household income. Class-level variables included teacher's qualification and experience. The results indicated student's MARS and autonomous reading motivation were the two most powerful correlates of reading comprehension among the significant variables. Furthermore, teacher's qualification and experience moderated the strength of the relationship between MARS and reading comprehension. Implications for future research, policy making, and improvement of reading instruction are discussed.

Using the Opportunity-Propensity Model (Byrnes in Dev Rev 56:100911, 2020 (See CR23); Byrnes & Miller in Contemp Educ Psychol 32(4);599-629, 2007 (See CR25)), the current study investigated which factors helped predicting children's home learning experiences during the COVID-19 pandemic, thereby examining differences between children with (DD; n = 779) and without (TD; n = 1443) developmental disorders. MANCOVA results indicated more negative experiences for DD children and their parents. SEM-results revealed the alignment between different teachers and autonomous motivation in children as the most important predictors for the outcome variables. Less predictors were significant for DD as compared to TD children which suggests other factors are at play in the DD group. Limitations, strengths and suggestions for future research are being discussed, together with some implications for classroom practices and remote learning approaches., Author(s): Elke Baten [sup.1] , Fieke Vlaeminck [sup.1] , Marjolein Mués [sup.1] , Martin Valcke [sup.2] , Annemie Desoete [sup.1] [sup.3] , Petra Warreyn [sup.1] Author Affiliations: (1) grid.5342.0, 0000 [...]

This study investigates (1) the impact of structuring versus reflection-provoking support on university students' adoption of socially shared metacognitive regulation (SSMR) during face-to-face peer tutoring (PT) and (2) the relation between SSMR and group performance. A quasi-experimental design was adopted, involving 72 educational sciences students who were randomly assigned to PT-groups of six. Each group was provided with either structuring (SS) or reflection-provoking (RS) support. The training and closing PT-session of six groups in each support condition were videotaped (48 h). SSMR was studied by means of systematic observation of video-recorded PT sessions, whereas PT groups' score on the assignment during the last PT session served as performance measure. The results revealed only significant differences in SSMR between both support conditions, when the proportion of students actively involved in SSMR, was taken into consideration. More specifically, PT groups in the RS condition revealed significantly more SSMR in which (nearly) all students are engaged, as compared with PT groups in the SS condition. The correlational analyses further indicated that only SSMR representing a high participation degree of (nearly) all students is significantly positively related to PT groups' performance.

Reading strategies have been documented as beneficial facilitators for readers to understand text; their potential efficacy, however, has not yet adequately assessed among struggling readers in the context of a large number of students below grade level at secondary schools internationally. Using a pretest-posttest control group experimental design, the present study examined the effects of Chinese reading strategy instruction among struggling readers in grades 7 and 8 in mainland China. A sample of 342 struggling readers from five Chinese secondary schools participated in the intervention study. Students in the experimental condition received explicit teaching of reading strategies, whereas those in the control condition took regular classes. Results showed that the students in the experimental classes significantly outperformed those in the control classes not only in reading comprehension but also in autonomous reading motivation (ARM) and metacognitive awareness of reading strategies (MARS). No significant effects could be found on their controlled reading motivation. Furthermore, ARM and MARS partially mediated the effects of this instruction on reading comprehension. The findings imply that reading strategy instruction can be an effective approach to help struggling readers to improve their reading performance, with ARM and MARS acting as mediators.

This study aimed to explore the constructs related to teachers' competence in immediately intervening in school bullying (CIISB) in order to develop a valid intervention process. In this study, 16 secondary school teachers in Taiwan with experience of dealing with school bullying were interviewed. In total, 26 interview transcripts were analysed. The results highlight two key constructs that are central to CIISB. The first is "structuring prompt management of school bullying." This involves three phases: identifying the incident, stabilising the incident, and clarifying incidents as well as implementing incidental and intentional learning. The second construct is "setting the appropriate atmosphere." This refers to teachers' capacity to build a positive relationship with students by maintaining a calm, serious and fair attitude, and creating a positive atmosphere to implement an immediate intervention. The results suggest that teachers should master the above constructs of CIISB, thereby providing a suitable immediate intervention when school bullying occurs.

Minors are daily confronted with advertisements, which are occasionally controversial. In order to promote adolescents' moral advertising literacy, this intervention study explores how to stimulate secondary education students' knowledge on advertising law and their moral judgement of advertisements. Because a lot of new--especially online--advertising formats have arisen during the last years, 191 students from 12 classes were randomly assigned to either a no tablet condition or a tablet condition (to raise authenticity of learning material). The results show that students who use tablet devices perform less well on a post-test about advertising law. Regarding adolescents' moral judgement of advertisements, thematic analyses reveal that especially the use of nudity and feminine beauty are labelled as contentious in both conditions, because of, inter alia, the negative effects for adolescent girls' self-image and the desire to lose weight. After the intervention, the tablet condition has proven to be more effective in promoting critical thinking about nudity/feminine beauty in advertisements. However, none of the conditions did provide evidence that a critical attitude towards alcohol advertising is encouraged. In this regard, implications for future research in the context of advertising literacy education are discussed.

In 2016, Uruguay started gathering longitudinal student data to improve educational trajectories by putting in place an 'early alert' system. Underlying the system is the understanding that prior schooling predicts likelihood of grade repetition and grade repetition predicts later school dropout, while close follow-up can help prevent both repetition and dropout. We used a database of administrative registries from a national public primary school graduating cohort on their last year in primary and first year in secondary education (2015-2016, n = 36,754). We conducted two-level cross-classified logistic regression analyses to assess the suitability of using features of Uruguayan students' primary school trajectories, individual, family and primary school characteristics to predict their success or failure in their first year of secondary school. All considered prior schooling factors (previous repetition experiences, achievement, behaviour and absenteeism), the student's family socio-economic status (SES) and primary school's SES composition, as well as the location of the school in an urban or rural setting, help explain differences in chances of first-year success or failure (grade repetition) in secondary school. While these results support the 'early alert' system's approach, predictive performance analyses are needed when using explanatory models for planning interventions with scarce resources and making decisions affecting individual students' trajectories. The importance of testing resulting models' sensitivity, as well as their false positive rates, is highlighted.

The present article reports an empirical quantitative study involving 107 undergraduate students from Entrepreneurship and Innovation courses in a public university. Students were randomly assigned to 3 conditions: structured Research-based learning (RBL), semi structured RBL and control. We hypothesized that studying in a structured RBL condition would result in a higher intention to do research (INT) and higher course achievement (CA) along with positive changes in autonomous motivation (AM), perceived behavioral control (PBC), behavioral beliefs (BB) and subjective norm (SN); as compared to studying in a semi-structured RBL and control condition. The intervention lasted 7 weeks as part of a regular course and was based on Brew's RBL framework. A significant differential impact was observed in overall course achievement and in specific research skills clusters. No significant differences were observed in INT, AM, PBC, BB and SN. The results lead to clear implications and directions for future research.

The increasing attention on Chinese as a foreign language (CFL) pronunciation instruction gives us an opportunity to look into the current directions of teaching CFL and the specific instructional pronunciation strategies employed by CFL teachers. This paper offers a review of empirical evidence on the use and impact of instructional pronunciation strategies in the CFL field from 1980 to 2019. Our findings reveal that: (1) controlled segmental-based strategies--such as comparative strategies, listening, and repeating strategies--are used widely and effectively to improve pronunciation of Chinese initials and finals; (2) suprasegmental-based strategies, especially computer-assisted strategies, largely improve CFL students' tone accuracy; and (3) the validity of assessments in quantitative studies needs to be further developed by including comparative groups, making tests before and after instructions, and involving discourse assessment contents.

A major area of interest within the field of professional development is the concept of motivation. However, research explaining how to enhance motivation in participants during training is scarce. Grounded in Self-Determination Theory, this study aimed to gain insight into the design approaches of professional development initiatives in higher education. Based on semi-structured interviews with 16 Ecuadorian university authorities in charge of professional development, design features that likely satisfy or frustrate university teachers' basic psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness were identified. Results pointed to a stronger, yet limited focus on the needs for autonomy and competence, when compared to the need of relatedness. These findings are expected to initiate a discussion on guidelines aimed at enhancing the motivation of professional development participants and to respond to calls for design approaches centred on the learner.

Leadership development is not considered as a core component in higher education policies specifically when we examine the higher education polices of developing countries. To fill this gap, an intervention is designed to evaluate the impact of a leadership development program in academic leaders. The prime objective of this intervention was to promote awareness among university deans and heads by adopting transformational leadership in their leadership practices. An experimental research design was adopted to map the effects of a 6-week intervention and to evaluate the variations in related six transformational leadership behaviors. Up to 37 academic deans and heads from public universities were involved in this research. Content analysis was carried out to analyze the collected data. Bloom's taxonomy was adopted as a framework for the analysis. Three lower levels of Bloom's taxonomy were used to identify the awareness indicators. An extensive increase in awareness levels was identified in relation to all six transformational leadership behaviors, and more specifically, a prominent progress was observed at the application level. In addition to implications and limitations, directions for future research were also discussed.

Worldwide, we observe an increasing focus on fostering well-being in adolescents. This is reflected in growing research in the field of care. However, empirical research is lacking that focuses on the relationship between components of care: receiving care, self-care and extending care. This lack of research is mirrored in the lack of valid measures for assessing care competencies in educational contexts. The present research, therefore, has four goals: 1) to create a valid and reliable scale assessing levels of care competencies based on the multifaceted and multidimensional concept of care; 2) to explore the relationship between socio-demographic characteristics and care competencies in adolescents; 3) to examine the psychological outcomes associated with different levels of care competencies in adolescents; 4) to explore the interaction of the three care dimensions in predicting adolescents' well-being. Based on data from 742 adolescents, a reliable and valid scale could be developed with six subscales: Receiving care, self-care and extending care, with each of them falling apart in care competencies and care failures. Gender, age and academic achievement were related to care competencies/failures. Findings support the link between adolescents' well-being and care competencies/failures. These results have implications for promoting adolescents' well-being through school-based care-cultivation programs., Author(s): Nguyen Phuoc Cat Tuong [sup.1] [sup.2] , Wim Beyers [sup.3] , Martin Valcke [sup.4] Author Affiliations: (1) grid.5342.0, 0000 0001 2069 7798, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences - [...]

In recent years, there has been a growing recognition of the importance of integrating ultrasound into undergraduate medical curricula. However, empirical evidence is lacking as to its effect on anatomy learning and related student cognition. Therefore, the present study compared the impact of echocardiography‐based instruction with narrated videos on students' understanding of anatomical relationships, as well as the interaction with students' autonomous motivation, self‐efficacy beliefs, mental load, and attitudes. Second‐year medical students were given the opportunity to enroll in a supplementary booster course about cardiac anatomy. On the base of a randomized controlled trial with a cross‐over design, we studied the effect of taking this course on spatial anatomical knowledge. After completing a pre‐test (T0), students were allocated randomly to either the echocardiography‐based teaching condition (cohort A) or the narrated anatomy video condition (cohort B). Next, participants were crossed over to the alternative intervention. Immediately after each phase in the intervention, students were asked to rate their mental load. Additionally, a spatial anatomical knowledge test, an autonomous motivation scale, and a self‐efficacy scale were administered before (T0) and after the first intervention (T1) and at the end of the study (T2). Finally, each student completed a perception‐based survey. The study design allowed a comparative evaluation of both interventions at T1, while the cross‐over design facilitated the assessment of the most optimal sequencing in the interventions at T2. A total of 206 students participated (cohort A: n = 99, cohort B: n = 107). At T1, no significant differences in the knowledge test and the autonomous motivation scale were observed between cohorts A and B. However, cohort A showed higher self‐efficacy beliefs compared to cohort B (p = 0.043). Moreover, cohort A reported higher levels of perceived mental load (p < 0.001). At T2, the results showed that neither sequence of interventions resulted in significant differences in anatomy scores, autonomous motivation, or self‐efficacy. However, a significant difference in mental load was found again, with students in cohort B reporting a higher level of mental load (p < 0.001). Finally, based on the perception‐based survey, students reported favorably on the echocardiography experience. In conclusion, the hands‐on echocardiography sessions were highly appreciated by the medical students. After participating in the ultrasound sessions, they reported higher levels of self‐efficacy beliefs compared to the video‐based condition. However, despite embodied cognition principles, students in the echocardiography condition did not outperform students in the narrated anatomy video condition. The reported levels of mental load in the ultrasound condition could explain these findings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article presents the findings of a qualitative study (carried out between 2011 and 2013) about the adoption and implementation of learning paths within a Learning Management System (LMS). Sixteen secondary school biology teachers of the GO! Network in Flanders (an urbanized region in Belgium) were involved in the study and questioned via semi-structured interviews. Two research questions are addressed: (1) what are the perceived conditions at school and at teacher level affecting the use of learning paths? (2) how are these conditions related to the expected outcomes? Research results show teachers are satisfied with learning paths as an educational tool, but reflect mixed feelings as to the impact on student learning outcomes. Clear barriers are identified at the school and teacher level, thwarting the implementation of learning paths in secondary education. The availability of a reliable and accessible ICT infrastructure, the quality of technical and pedagogical support, teacher professional development and the mastery of teacher Information and Communication Technology competencies, among others, were found to be essential.

The present study aims at investigating whether events of socially shared metacognitive regulation (SSMR) differ from each other when comparing their characteristics. These differences are labelled "variations in SSMR". The study is conducted in a peer tutoring setting at university and includes video data (70 h of video recordings) on the regulation behaviour of thirty students who participated in a semester-long peer tutoring intervention that was directed at knowledge co-construction. In addition to studying variations in SSMR, the current study aims at examining whether individual students' engagement in variations in SSMR is related to their performance on a knowledge test taken immediately after the peer tutoring intervention. Latent class cluster models were run to explore the presence of variations in SSMR. The trigger for SSMR, the number of students actively involved in SSMR, the level of elaboration during SSMR, and the function of SSMR in the collaborative learning process were included in the model as input parameters. A four-cluster model was selected as the best fitting model that demonstrated statistical significance. The four identified variations of SSMR were labelled as 'interrogative SSMR', 'affirmative SSMR', 'interfering SSMR', and 'progressive SSMR'. Regression analyses revealed that not all variations in SSMR are equally important for predicting students' performance. Students' engagement in interrogative SSMR was significantly positively related to students' performance on the knowledge test, whereas their engagement in interfering SSMR was negatively related. In contrast, the frequency of students' involvement in affirmative SSMR or progressive SSMR demonstrated no significant relation with students' performance. By unravelling the multifaceted character of SSMR, the present study allows to extend and to refine the emerging theory on shared regulation.

This study compares four learning environments: face-to-face learning (F2F), fully e-learning (EL), blended learning (BL), and flipped classroom (FC) with respect to students' learning performance. Moreover, this present research studies changes in perceived flexibility, intrinsic motivation, self-efficacy beliefs of students, and the interaction effects in these student variables on learning performance. Two learning environment design elements: (1) lectures (2) group discussions building on guiding questions, were manipulated to create the four learning environments. Third-year undergraduate students (n = 106), enrolled in the "Animal and Human Physiology" course at CanTho University (Vietnam), were randomly assigned to one of the four learning environments. The results suggest a significant positive differential effect on learning performance when studying in a FC and BL setting. No significant interaction effects could be observed regarding changes in perceived flexibility, intrinsic motivation and self-efficacy. However, significant differences between learning conditions were observed in perceived flexibility. Analysis of focus group data corroborate the finding that students experience more flexibility in time and place when studying in FC, BL and EL environments. In addition, students in a FC environment reflect significantly larger positive changes in their self-efficacy. But, the qualitative data show how positive perceptions about flexibility, motivation and self-efficacy are often cancelled out by negative perceptions.

Building on the well-recognised relevance of alignment processes in schools, this study aimed to explore the relationship between the perspectives of teachers and students on the relative importance of addressing comprehensive sexuality education (CSE) in Ecuadorian schools. A survey of 353 teachers and 780 students attending the same schools revealed that teachers attributed greater importance to CSE compared to students. Inferential analysis suggests that the perceptions of the teachers and students on the importance of addressing CSE in school are largely aligned with regards to the dimensions of gender roles, sexual rights, diversity and relationships. In contrast, their perceptions are less aligned with regards to the dimensions of sexual health, violence and pleasure. These findings have implications for enhancing comprehensive sexuality education in Ecuadorian schools.

This study aimed at exploring secondary school teachers' cognitions regarding bully-victims, including what handling strategies those teachers often adopt to tackle the dual problem inherent to this population. In this study, 13 secondary school teachers were invited to participate in interviews, and the results indicated that most of the teachers initially identified bully-victims as merely victims. However, with increased interactions involving bully-victims and more complaints from peers, teachers began to adjust their cognitions, and they recognised that these students could not be categorised into any specific role. Moreover, the results of this study also indicated that the teachers' cognitions regarding bully-victims influenced the handling strategies employed with these students. Teachers often gave reprimands and assistance in parallel, regardless of the involved students' roles, and they improved bully-victims' situations by cooperating with schools, peers, and parents. The results suggest that teachers can utilise both punishment and assistance in parallel to effectively handle both the problems and needs of bully-victims versus relying on either one or the other.