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Background Venomous snake bites cause acute medical emergencies and are fatal. India accounts for large proportion of snake-bite deaths globally. Medically important ‘BIG FOUR’ snakes of India are Bungarus caeruleus (krait), Naja naja (cobra), Echis carinatus (saw-scaled viper) and Daboia russelii (Russell's viper). Polyherbal formulations have been proved to be effective in treatment of diseases than a single formulation. Objective(s) To evaluate aqueous ethanolic extract cocktail of Azadirachata indica, Butea monosperma, Citrus limon, Clerodendrum serratum and Areca catechu for antidote potential against BIG FOUR venoms in ex vivo and in vivo model. Materials and methods Anti-hemorrhagic and venom neutralization studies were performed in seven-day old chick embryo model for ex vivo studies. In vivo studies were performed using male Swiss albino mice for antivenom potential of herbal cocktail by performing anti-edematic, anti-hemorrhagic, anti-myotoxic activity, and venom neutralization. Results Herbal cocktail exhibited differential venom inhibition potential against four venoms tested. Hemorrhagic activity was completely neutralized by the herbal cocktail; myotoxic activities of krait and Russell's viper venom were neutralized; while anti-edematic activity was observed for krait and cobra venom. Herbal cocktail completely neutralized venom lethality (3∗LD50) of krait and saw-scaled viper venom. Conclusion Inhibitions of various venom components of all four venoms suggests presence of phytochemicals in herbal cocktail with therapeutic properties. Further studies would help in the development of a formulation as a first-aid towards treatment of snake bite victims.

Background: Carissa spinarum Linn has been used as a traditional medicine to treat various ailments, including snakebite. It is found in India, Ceylon and Thailand. Objective: The study was performed to determine the inhibiting potential of Carissa spinarum methanolic leaf extract on the pharmacological effects of Viper venom. Methods: The dose-dependent enzymatic studies, pharmacological and in vivo studies were conducted using standard methods. Results: It neutralized toxic enzymes in a dose-dependent manner with concentrations ranging from 53.3 –1190.4 μg/mL, inhibited lysis of fibrinogen at 1:8 (venom: extract, w/w), and increased the procoagulant activity and lecithin lysis at 1:25 (venom: extract, w/w). The extract neutralized the LD50 of venom in mice and embryos, reduced haemorrhage, myotoxicity and edema induced by the venom in mice. Conclusion: The observed results confirm that the leaf extract possesses adequate phytochemicals that could neutralize the toxic properties of the venom.

In this experiment plant mediated method used to prepare silver nanoparticles using Justica wynaadensis leaf extract. The leaf extract solution reduced and stabilized the AgNO3 into Silver nanoparticles. The synthesis of silver nanoparticles was observed by the colour reaction and monitored by UV–visible spectroscopy in the range of 400 nm to 500 nm for silver nanoparticles. The synthesized nanoparticles were subjected to characterization technique by using X-ray diffraction (XRD), Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM), Fourier Transform Infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). TEM analysis of the silver nanoparticles were found to be crystalline in structure, varying in size from 30 nm to 50 nm. The biological activities of Ag nanoparticles showed significant results against anti-bacterial, anticancer activity (Cell line A549). The anti-diabetic and anti-inflammatory activities of Justica wynaadensis Ag nanoparticles also has proved that it is a good alternatives in medicine and industrial application.

A fungal species was screened from a forest soil by enrichment agar plating method with longifolene as only carbon source. It was identified as Penicillium europium. The isolated fungus transformed...

Exopolysaccharide is long-chain high molecular weight polymeric carbohydrates composed of monosaccharide units bound together by glycosidic linkage, which are secreted extracellularly by the secreting microscopic cell or organism. These exopolysaccharides can be either homopolysaccharide or heteropolysaccharide in nature. Exopolysaccharide comprises repeated units of sugar moieties attached to the carrier lipid and can be associated with proteins, lipids, organic and inorganic compounds, and metal ions. Bacteria, archaea, yeast, filamentous fungi, and single cell of eukaryotes produce microbial exopolysaccharides. Microbial synthesis of polysaccharides is greatly influenced by environmental factors such as temperature, pH, pressure, salinity, toxicity, and radiation levels across their ecological niche. Due to the very less production time of exopolysaccharides and its simple purification process, these have found various successful applications in various industrial sectors such as pharmacology, diagnostics, nutraceuticals, functional foods, cosmetics, herbicides and insecticides, bioremediation, biotechnology, petrochemicals, dairy industry, and paint industry. Some of the most important exopolysaccharides and its industrial applications are Acetan (as preservative), Alternan (as commercial gum Arabic), Biodispersion (as remediation of oil spills), Cellulose (as non-indigestible fiber), Curdlan (as a food additive and gelling agent), Dextran (as moisturizers), Emulsan (as crude oil recoveree), Gellan (as stabilizer and microencapsulation matrix), Hyaluronan (as for the removal of dead cells in skincare products), Kefiran (as anti-cancer agents), Levan (as viscosifier), Mutan (as adhesives), Succinoglucan (as emulsion stabilizers), Welan (as thickening agents in high-temperature industries), Xanthan (as an emulsifier and suspending agent), and Pullulan (as orally consumable films). These exopolysaccharides are produced by bacterial species such as Acetobacter, Pseudomonas, Leuconostoc, Alteromonas, Alcaligenes, Lactobacillus, Zymomonas, Xanthomonas, Aureobasidium (fungus). These compounds are purified by techniques such as membrane filtration, dialysis, precipitation, various types of column chromatography, lyophilization, distillation, and rotatory vaporization. This chapter describes different isolation and purification techniques for microbial exopolysaccharides.

An ever-growing call to contain pollution has led to the search for alternate sources of sustainable industrial raw materials. Recently, biodegradable waste materials have been sought after as a potential alternative. The waste from packaging materials is of great concern as it is nondegradable. Synthetic plastics made with different kinds of polymers such as Expanded polystyrene (EPS), Polyethylene Terephthalate (PETE), Polyethylene (PE), Polypropylene (PP), and Polyethylene terephthalate (PET, are primarily used for packaging materials. These synthetic polymers being lightweight, strong, and economical, find use in equipment protection, civil construction, food packaging and other packages, etc. However, after use, these packaging materials are discarded. And since they are not completely degradable, they accumulate and contaminate the natural ecosystem. Therefore, it is imperative to seek eco-friendly options. Biodegradable materials developed using macrofungi have shown their ability to convert agricultural wastes into biodegradable packaging materials. Mushroom mycelia thus appear to be promising in creating new packaging materials, which are environmentally friendly and economical. Hence, this chapter attempts to compile some of the recent technological advances made in creating packaging materials using mushrooms for a sustainable future.

Microbial pigments are colored secondary metabolites produced by various kinds of microorganisms. These pigments vary in color from red, green, to yellow, etc. They typify the organism by giving it the color, help in photosynthesis, and play vital roles in pathogenicity. Some of the more important microbial pigments are carotenoids, flavonoids (anthocyanins), and some tetrapyrroles (chlorophylls, phycobiliproteins). They are majorly found in various species of bacteria and fungi. In the recent past, these pigments have been found to be useful beyond their inherent biological relevance. Due to the growing need for natural colorants and dyes in various industries, these microbial pigments are being extensively sought after; in particular, in the food industry as food colorants, in the textile industry as natural dyes, in the medical industry as anticancerous compounds and immunosuppressants, etc. Here, in this chapter, we have outlined what microbial pigments are, their types, their characteristic occurrences along with their multifaceted commercial application. Factors that improve the production of these pigments and the methods adopted for their extraction are also discussed in this chapter. The need for an eco-friendly, but sustainable industry demands that we substitute synthetic coloring agents with these biological pigments.

Chitosan is used as an alternative effective bio-pesticide to manage the crop diseases and to increase the fertility of soil surface. Chitosan is a chitin derivative composed of poly(β-(1–4)-d-glucosamine) isolated from fungal cell walls, crustacean, and shrimp shell. It is a polymer that is non-toxic, biocompatible, and conveniently biodegradable. Chitosan is capable of persuading callose formation in plants, by synthesising phytoalexins to inhibit the growth of parasites in plant cells. In addition, it enhances stomatal conductance and decreases the phase of transpiration without affecting the plants’ physical nature. Furthermore, to alter the permeability of the membrane, Chitosan is used as a coating agent for nuts, fruits, and vegetables. It raises sugar and proline concentrations and increases the activity of peroxidase, catalase, phenyl aniline ammonia lyase, and tyrosine-ammonia lyase enzymes. It also has the potential to release the fertiliser in a continuous manner, and it increases the soil water retention property. In addition, chitosan has a high potential to resist pathogenic fungus formation, sporulation, viability of spores, and fungal germination. For four decades, chitosan has been used in a variety of applications for various applications, such as enzyme immobilisation, enhancement of healing activity, heavy metal removal, industrial residue treatment, food preservation, cosmetics, and medical applications. In addition, it is used in the manufacture of vaccines for the adsorption of protein on the surface of the mucosa, value-added product in carbohydrates and applied in different industrial products such as nutrition, biomedical, and prebiotics. In this book chapter, we mainly focus on discussion about the application of chitosan in agriculture and industrial processes.

Enzymes are biocatalysts that speed up the chemical reaction to obtain the final valuable product/s. Biotechnology has revolutionized the use of traditional enzymes to be applicable in industries such as food, beverage, personal and household care, agriculture, bioenergy, pharmaceutical, and various other segments. With respect to the exponential growth of enzymes in biotech industries, it becomes important to highlight the advancements and impact of enzyme technology over recent years. In this review article, we discuss the existing and emerging production approaches, applications, developments, and global need for enzymes. Special emphasis is given to the predominantly utilized hydrolytic microbial enzymes in industrial bioprocesses.

Anti-snake venom therapy is the only treatment for snake bite but leads to acute and chronic conditions which may be severe. The medicinal plants have gained importance over years to find an effective alternative to anti-snake venom. The present study focused on evaluating the potential of Clerodendrum serratum for the anti-snake venom activity. Phytochemicals were extracted from the C. serratum with different solvents. The ethyl acetate and methanolic extracts were found to neutralize the major enzyme toxins (phospholipase A 2 , protease and hyaluronidase) of Bungarus caeruleus and Daboia russelii venom at a concentration of 100 µg/mL. The fibrinogenolytic activity of both the venoms were neutralized. The study proves that the plant C. serratum possesses certain compounds which inhibit the toxins present in the venom of B. caeruleus and D. russelii . Video Clip of Methodology : Hyaluronidase assay: 3 min 30 sec Full Screen Alternate

Azima tetracantha Lam. is native to Africa and India. The plant and its parts are used for treating various ailments including snake bites. The different concentrations of ethyl acetate leaf extract of A. tetracantha were used to neutralize the toxic effect of venom through dose dependent enzyme studies and in vivo studies. The extract was able to neutralize the 5’ nucleotidase, phospholipase A2, Phosphodiesterae, phosphomonoesterase, acetylcholinesterase and hyaluronidase in a dose dependent manner with concentrations ranging from 43.98 –340.1 μg/mL of extract. The extract could retain the lysis of fibrinogen at the concentration of 1:10 (venom: extract, w/w) and also the lysis of lecithin was reduced at a concentration of 1:25 (venom: extract, w/w). The extract was able to neutralize the LD50 of venom in both mice and embryo and also reduce the myotoxic and edema properties of the venom in mice models. The venom did not show any procoagulant and hemorrhagic effect. The leaf extract possess adequate compounds/phytochemicals that could neutralize the toxic properties/activity of the B. caeruleus venom.

Scorpions are distributed throughout the world and numerous biological molecules are found in their venom most importantly peptide toxins. These toxins modulate the ion channels either by blocking the pore of the channel or by altering the voltage gating. Molecules which block the pores have been useful in deciphering the structure of the ion channels. Many scorpion toxins have already been used for probing the voltage gated sodium channels and studying their activation and inactivation processes. The specialty of scorpion toxins is to discriminate between vertebrate and invertebrate channels which have led them to applications as pharmacological tools. Most of the scorpion toxin polypeptides were isolated, characterized and were shown to possess vital properties useful in the field of medicine. For instance, they show therapeutic properties such as antimicrobial activity, anticancer activity, used to treat autoimmune diseases and cardiovascular effects. Although the scorpion toxins exhibited good therapeutic effects in vitro and in vivo, no one has reached the market with success up to date. In this mini-review, the scorpion polypeptides, their interactions with ion channels and their uses as therapeutic agents are discussed.

Microbes exist in every type of environment and the human gut is no exception. These microbes play a very crucial role in health and metabolism. Synthetic Gutomics is an effort to describe the engineering of the gut microbiota for ameliorating human disorders. This technology uses non-invasive treatment of diseases by improving a healthy microbial community in the gut. The gut microbiome contributes to the functioning of many human systems ranging from the immune system to the nervous system. With the advancement of technology, synthetic biology has played an important role in developing engineered organisms. In this chapter, we discuss the advancement in probiotics using synthetic biology as a tool and its future advancements. Various types of organisms and their interaction with the human gut are discussed. This is followed by examination of the influence of diet on the human gut microbiota and health. The emergence of probiotics is then discussed. The role of synthetic biology on probiotics is then evaluated, along with the species that are used in synthetic biology together with the therapies used. This is followed by the tools and techniques used in synthetic probiotics. Their application in human health is followed by a discussion of metabolic modelling of the human gut microbiome. Finally the limitations, opportunities and future implications of this technology are presented.

In the present study, glucoamylase produced from a soil bacterium Paenibacillus amylolyticus NEO03 was cultured under submerged fermentation conditions. The extracellular enzyme was purified by starch adsorption chromatography and further by gel filtration, with 2.73-fold and recovery of 40.02%. The protein exhibited molecular mass of ∼66,000 Da as estimated by SDS-PAGE and depicted to be a monomer. The enzyme demonstrated optimum activity at pH range 6.0-7.0 and temperature range 30-40 °C. Glucoamylase was mostly activated by Mn2+ metal ions and depicted no dependency on Ca2+ ions. The enzyme preferentially hydrolyzed all the starch substrates. High substrate specificity was demonstrated towards soluble starch and kinetic values Km and Vmax were 2.84 mg/ml and 239.2 U/ml, respectively. The products of hydrolysis of soluble starch were detected by thin layer chromatography which showed only D -glucose, indicating a true glucoamylase. The secreted glucoamylase from P. amylolyticus strain possesses properties suitable for saccharification processes such as biofuel production.

The possibility of using Bacillus circulans in degrading captan was evaluated by comparing the captan degradation rate by freely suspended and immobilized cells on agar, sodium alginate (SA), polyacrylamide (PA) and polyurethane-foam (PUF) in batch and repeated batch degradations. Under batch degradations, 50, 60, 72, and 88% of 0.1% captan was degraded by freely suspended cells, agar-, SA-, and PA-immobilized cells, respectively in 72 h; whereas 15, 47.5, 67.7 and 75% of 0.2% captan was degraded by freely suspended cells, agar-, SA-, and PA-immobilized cells, respectively in 72 h. However, 0.1 and 0.2% captan were completely degraded by PUF-immobilized cells in 48 and 72 h, respectively. Under repeated batch degradations, PUF-immobilized cells were reused more than 40 cycles for 72 h without losing the captan degradation ability, while the cells immobilized on agar, SA, and the PA could be reused for 15, 20, and 25 cycles, respectively. A significant 0.1% captan degradation by PUF-immobilized cells was observed at pH 4.0 - 10.0 and 20 - 40 ºC ranges. In contrast, freely suspended cells only degraded captan at optimum pH of 7.0 and 30 ºC. The PUF-immobilized cells were able to significantly degrade captan for 120 days at 4 ºC without losing the captan degradation ability; whereas this ability was lost in 120 days for freely suspended cells. Since the application of captan leads to pollution and reduces soil fertility, the use of immobilized cells of Bacillus circulans can thus be a better cost-effective strategy to decontaminate captan polluted sites.

Extracellular glucoamylase producing microorganisms were screened from soil. The potent organism was identified as Paenibacillus amylolyticus strain NEO03 based on microscopic examinations and 16S rDNA molecular sequencing. The production of glucoamylase from the isolated bacterium was optimized by one factor at a time approach and the significant factors were evaluated by response surface methodology. Under submerged fermentation conditions, maximum activity was observed after 48 h of incubation, pH 7.0, temperature 37 °C and inoculum level of 6% (v/v). The optimum nutrient sources were rice bran and yeast extract. Furthermore, the significant medium factors were statistically evaluated. The fast growing P. amylolyticus strain possessed good fermenting ability to utilize agro-wastes for enzyme production. The extracellular glucoamylase can be used as a beneficial candidate for industrial applications, especially for saccharification processes.

A bacterium capable of degrading pendimethalin was isolated from the contaminated soil samples and identified as Bacillus lehensis XJU based on 16S rRNA gene sequence analysis. 6-Aminopendimethalin and 3,4-dimethyl 2,6-dinitroaniline were identified as the metabolites of pendimethalin degradation by the bacterium. The biodegradation of pendimethalin by freely suspended and the immobilized cells of B. lehensis on various matrices namely agar, alginate, polyacrylamide, and polyurethane foam was also investigated. The batch degradation rate was nearly the same for both free and immobilized cells in agar and alginate, whereas polyacrylamide- and PUF-immobilized cells degraded 93 and 100 of 0.1 % pendimethalin after 96 and 72 h, respectively. At higher concentration, the degradation rate of freely suspended cells decreased; whereas the same immobilized cells on polyurethane foam completely degraded 0.2 % pendimethalin within 96 h. The repeated batch degradation with the polyurethane foam-immobilized cells was reused for 35 cycles without losing the 0.1 % pendimethalin degrading ability. In contrast, agar-, alginate- and polyacrylamide-immobilized cells could be reused for 15, 18, and 25 cycles, respectively. When the pendimethalin concentration was increased to 0.2 %, the immobilized cells could be reused but the pendimethalin degradation rate was decreased. Polyurethane foam-immobilized cells exhibited better tolerance to pH and temperature alterations than freely suspended cells and could be stored for more than 3 months without losing pendimethalin degrading ability. The immobilization of cells capable of degrading pendimethalin may serve as an ideal technique for the complete degradation of the herbicide in the environment.