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Spearfishing is practiced by a small fraction of younger recreational fishers and has received considerably less scientific attention than angling. This knowledge gap may negatively affect the ability for developing sustainable marine recreational fisheries. We address this through a global systematic review of the literature pertaining to marine spearfishing (both recreational and otherwise) and providing an integrative overview of key research topics of ecological, social, and economic dimensions. The systematic review indicated an increasing number of papers related to marine recreational spearfishing, with the majority exclusively focused on ecological impacts of spearfishing. The integrative review identifies the most relevant ecological impacts and possible strategies to minimize them to develop sustainable marine recreational spearfishing. Marine recreational spearfishing fosters connection with the underwater environment, but more research on the social aspects is needed. Results also show a growing research interest in assessing the economic contribution of marine recreational spearfishing. Finally, we argue that recreational spearfishers represent a widespread network of underwater observers whose extensive knowledge may help to identify and track changes in marine ecosystems. Overall, we highlight key points to consider when conducting multi- and interdisciplinary research regarding marine recreational spearfishing.

In late 2019, an outbreak caused by a novel coronavirus started in China (Graham and Baric, 2020; Hu et al., 2020; Maxmen, 2021). A global pandemic was declared in March 2020, as COVID-19, the disease caused by the coronavirus (World Health Organization, 2020b), escalated outside China (World Health Organization, 2020a). In mid-2021, when vaccination campaigns began to show positive effects on the control of the disease in several countries (Kaur and Gupta, 2020), the COVID-19 pandemic caused millions of deaths and hundreds of millions of infections (Dong et al., 2020). To fight the pandemic, governments reacted with measures designed to contain the spread of the virus, especially through measures aimed to reduce social interactions, including lockdowns (Wilder-Smith and Freedman, 2020), travel restrictions (Chinazzi et al., 2020), and limiting people’s access to non-essential activities (Storr et al., 2021). Humanity suffered a notable impact as a result of the pandemic, including losses of jobs and an abrupt disruption in global demand of goods and services (Barua, 2020; McKibbin and Fernando, 2020; Nicola et al., 2020). The pandemic further degraded the quality of life of the most vulnerable people, particularly those with mental health problems (Brooks et al., 2020), victims of domestic violence (Usher et al., 2020), children (Singh et al., 2020), or indigenous populations (Lane, 2020). As a result, an increase in economic inequality and worldwide poverty is expected, especially in developing countries (World Bank, 2020), and a peak in the suicide rate (Kawohl and Nordt, 2020). On the other hand, global reduction of human activities has had some positive effects on the global environment, especially for air and water quality (Rutz et al., 2020), and noise reduction (Zambrano-Monserrate et al., 2020). Marine ecosystems for example experienced less impacts derived from commercial fishing due to disruptions in large markets such as the United States (White et al., 2021a) or the European Union (Prellezo and Carvahlo, 2020; Coll et al., 2021). info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersion

The ICES Working Group on Recreational Fisheries Surveys (WGRFS) role is to summarise and quality assure recreational fishery data collected in European countries, and feed into the ICES advisory process on recreational fishing issues. In 2019, WGRFS shared and evaluated current national surveys; assessed the validity of new survey designs; assessed the use of survey data in stock assessments and the impact of catch and release; discussed the treatment of outliers in the analysis of survey data; reviewed the potential impacts of climate change on species distribution and updated the species list for collection under the Data Collection Framework (Regulation ((EC) No 2017/1004)); reviewed European and regional coordination; assessed data storage options; assessed novel survey methods; and discussed the ICES Workshop on Integrating Human Dimensions into the Management of Marine Recreational Fisheries (WKHDR). WGRFS provides a useful network for individuals developing surveys to test their ideas and designs that will increase the quality of data delivered. WGRFS has engaged with the Regional Coordination Groups, providing input into meetings and support for issues around recreational fisheries. The profile of the group has been raised through scientific presentations at conferences, and contribution to the development of a theme set in the ICES Journal of Marine Sciences titled “Marine recreational fisheries - current state and future opportunities”. Over the last year, the members of the group have published several publications facilitated by the WGRFS including an assessment of the impacts of recreational fishing on key European fish stocks, a review on the potential environmental impacts of recreational fisheries on stocks and ecosystems, and a review on digital camera monitoring of recreational fishing effort. At the 2019 meeting, further progress was made in key areas. Updates were provided on national sampling programmes, with surveys underway in almost all countries, and the most recent estimates collated. The design and implementation phase of the Galician (Spain), Swedish, and Danish programmes were assessed using the WGRFS quality assurance tool. The need for novel approaches for inclusion of recreational data in stock assessment for a broader range of stocks was highlighted, and approaches for catch allocations were discussed. Furthermore, the potential impacts of climate change on species caught by recreational fisheries and how that could impact on species lists for collection under the DCF was assessed. Approaches for European and regional coordination of data collection were discussed. Novel methods for data collection were highlighted, and need to be reviewed regularly as the landscape is changing very quickly. Intersessional work was agreed on: analysis and inclusion of data in stock assessments; compiling methods for catch allocation between user groups; and updating the quality assessment tool. The WGRFS recommendations were: developing a database that compiles estimates of recreational fisheries catches; to include recreational fisheries in more stock assessments and advice; that further work on the impacts of catch and release should be funded; and a workshop to review the impact of recreational fisheries based on the outcomes from EU-MAP pilot studies.

Hogfish (Labridae: Lachnolaimus maximus ) is distributed across several biogeographic regions, but its stock structure has been poorly documented, confounding stock assessment and management of this reef fishery species. In this study the genetic structure of hogfish over a portion of its southeastern U.S. range was examined by using a suite of 24 microsatellite DNA loci. Fin clips from 719 specimens were obtained from geographic locations ranging from northwest Florida through North Carolina. Genomic proportions of hogfish were partitioned into 3 distinct genetic clusters, geographically delineated as 1) the eastern Gulf of Mexico, 2) the Florida Keys and the southeast coast of Florida, and 3) the Carolinas. Clusters 1 and 2 converged along the coastal area west of the Florida Everglades, but the location of the genetic break between clusters 2 and 3 requires further study because of a discontinuity in specimen collection between southeast Florida and the Carolinas. The geographically limited reproductive exchange in this species indicates that future stock assessments should incorporate regionally partitioned analyses of life history and fishery data. Fil: Villanueva Gomila, Gabriela Lujan. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Centro Nacional Patagónico; Argentina Fil: Ehrlich, Martín David. Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones y Desarrollo Pesquero; Argentina. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Oficina de Coordinación Administrativa Ciudad Universitaria. Instituto de Ecología, Genética y Evolución de Buenos Aires. Universidad de Buenos Aires. Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales. Instituto de Ecología, Genética y Evolución de Buenos Aires; Argentina Fil: Venerus, Leonardo Ariel. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Centro Nacional Patagónico; Argentina

Los arrecifes rocosos norpatagónicos ofrecen refugio a un ensamble de peces que vive en estrecha asociación con los mismos. Esas especies, longevas y de crecimiento lento, exhibe por lo general una dispersión limitada y pueden permanecer en los arrecifes por períodos extensos (meses o incluso años). Las salmoneras, restingas o mereras, algunas de las denominaciones locales para estos sitios, sustentan actividades recreativas como la pesca, con línea y submarina, y el buceo, y han sido utilizadas para promover el desarrollo turístico de municipios como Puerto Madryn y Puerto Pirámide, principalmente en los años 1960s y 1970s. A pesar de su importancia económica, turística y cultural prácticamente no existe conciencia en la comunidad sobre la fragilidad de este sistema. A la fecha no se han implementado pautas de uso que contemplen las características ecológicas y biológicas de los peces de los arrecifes norpatagónicos, y/o que permitan compatibilizar las distintas actividades que el hombre realiza sobre los mismos. La fuerte estructuración espacial en la distribución de estos peces hace que la pesca recreativa de altura y submarina, tradicionalmente consideradas de menor magnitud respecto a las actividades extractivas comerciales, puedan tener un impacto importante a nivel local, modificando drásticamente las abundancias relativas de las distintas especies, sus estructuras de tallas y/o la proporción de sexos en los parajes más utilizados. En Chubut, la falta de políticas de conservación, de reglamentaciones adecuadas, de controles efectivos y de planes regulares de monitoreo han contribuido a la degradación de los arrecifes rocosos, y tanto pescadores como buzos han comenzado a manifestar preocupación por la reducción en el número y en el tamaño de los peces en los parajes más populares. Fil: Venerus, Leonardo Ariel. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Nacional Patagónico; Argentina

Del conjunto de peces que habita los arrecifes rocosos norpatagónicos, el salmón de mar es el que alcanza un mayor tamaño, llegando a superar los 25 kg. El ejemplar más grande al que se hace mención en un trabajo científico es un macho de 1,40 m de largo que pesó 37 kg, capturado en el golfo San Matías por un buque de investigación pesquera, el BIP Capitán Cánepa, en marzo de 1991. Hacia fines de los sesenta, se pescó una seguidilla de salmones de mar de tamaños récord en los arrecifes o salmoneras que se encuentran frente a la Isla de los Pájaros, en el golfo San José, Península Valdés. El mayor de éstos, cobrado por Manuel Rodríguez Ríos en septiembre de 1968, acusó 30,3 kg y midió 1,30 m, ¡casi tanto como el propio Manuel!. Fil: Venerus, Leonardo Ariel. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Nacional Patagónico; Argentina

El capítulo trata sobre aspectos básicos de la biología y la ecología de los peces con ejemplos de fauna argentina. También incorpora los usos que el hombre hace de estos recursos. Esta destinado a maestros de nivel inicial como material de referencia y forma parte de un programa educativo que desarrolla la ONG Fundación Patagonia Natural. Fil: Elias, Ines. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Nacional Patagónico; Argentina Fil: Galvan, David Edgardo. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Nacional Patagónico; Argentina Fil: Irigoyen, Alejo Joaquin. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Nacional Patagónico; Argentina Fil: Venerus, Leonardo Ariel. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Nacional Patagónico; Argentina

El salmón de mar Pseudopercis semifasciata (Cuvier, 1829) (Pinguipedidae) es un importante recurso pesquero y turístico en los golfos norpatagónicos de Argentina, donde vive asociado a pequeños arrecifes rocosos conocidos como “salmoneras”, que sustentan actividades recreativas y comerciales de buceo y pesca deportiva, submarina y artesanal. Es una especie longeva (~30 años), de gran tamaño (supera el metro de largo y los 20 kg de peso), y baja fecundidad, lo que la convierte en un blanco potencialmente vulnerable a la pesca. Sin embargo, su explotación nunca fue regulada y la aplicabilidad de los métodos de evaluación y manejo convencionales puede ser poco viable dependiendo de sus patrones de migración y movilidad a distintas escalas espaciales. En este trabajo se analiza información sobre áreas de desove y distribución de larvas y prerreclutas en la plataforma argentina, para investigar la posibilidad de que existan migraciones reproductivas. El grado de movilidad y el patrón de ocupación de los arrecifes por salmones de distinta talla, sexo y fenotipo cromático se estudiaron mediante marcación y censos visuales subacuáticos. Se desarrolló una metodología para estimar el esfuerzo de pesca recreativa y la cosecha, la que se aplicó a datos colectados en el golfo San José durante tres temporadas de pesca, y se evaluaron los cambios demográficos producto de esa actividad. Sobre la base de los resultados obtenidos se discuten alternativas para la evaluación del estado de las poblaciones locales del salmón de mar, y opciones de manejo para la pesca deportiva de altura sobre arrecifes rocosos. The Argentine sandperch Pseudopercis semifasciata (Cuvier, 1829) (Pinguipedidae) represents an important commercial and tourist resource in the northern Patagonian gulfs of Argentina. It inhabits low-relief rocky reefs known as “salmoneras”, which sustain recreational and commercial activities such as SCUBA diving and sport-, spear- and artisanal fishing. The Argentine sandperch is a vulnerable target to fishing due to its massive size (more than 1 m long and 20 kg weight), longevity (maximum age of about ~30 years) and low fecundity. However, its exploitation has never been regulated and conventional assessment and management approaches may not be applicable, depending on the migratory patterns and mobility of this species at different spatial scales. Information about spawning grounds and distribution of larvae and post-transition juveniles along the Argentine shelf was analyzed in order to investigate the possible occurrence of spawning migrations. The mobility and seasonal occupation of the reefs by different sizes, sexes and chromatic phenotypes of sandperch were studied at the local scale. A methodology was developed to estimate recreational angling effort and catches, and applied to data collected in San José Gulf over three fishing seasons. The demographic changes induced by fishing were also assessed. Possible approaches for the assessment of local sandperch populations and for the management of recreational angling on rocky reefs are suggested, based on the results obtained. Fil: Venerus, Leonardo Ariel. Universidad de Buenos Aires. Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales; Argentina.