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Presents a study in which the cellular responses and the involvement of increased cystolic Ca 2+ levels in carp. Methods of the study, which includes the recording of responses to T-cell mitogen, B-cell mitogen, and immunoglobulin (Ig); Results; Conclusion that all Ig-positive lymphocytes reacted to Ig cross-linking by elevating [Ca 2+]i.

The cytokine network is an important homeostatic system with potent activities in immune surveillance, growth, developmental and repair processes. Although interleukin-1β (IL-1β) is considered a pivotal pro-inflammatory cytokine, merely focussing on its inflammatory role would be too narrow an approach. Elucidation of the human, the mouse and the Fugu rubripes (pufferfish) genome now enables a more comprehensive overview of this cytokine family and its receptors in several vertebrate classes. Phylogenetic analyses of the IL-1 family members, comprising over 80 sequences of various fish, amphibian, avian and mammalian species, reveal that for only a few mammalian IL-1 family members unambiguous orthologues have been found in fish, indicating a recent origin of some of the mammalian IL-1 family members. Interestingly, the Fugu genome did reveal teleost orthologues for IL-18 and its putative receptor complex. All teleost IL-1β sequences cluster separately from IL-1β sequences of other species. In contrast, a number of IL-1 receptor family members have well conserved fish orthologues. This supports the concept of an ancestral role of this family, possibly in the brain. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

CXC chemokines, structurally recognizable by the position of four conserved cysteine residues, are prominent mediators of chemotaxis. Here we report a novel carp CXC chemokine obtained through homology cloning and compare it with fish orthologues genes and with a second, recently elucidated, carp CXC chemokine. Phylogenetic analyses clearly show that neither CXC chemokine resembles any of the mammalian CXC chemokines in particular. However, basal expression is most prominent in immune organs like anterior kidney and spleen, suggesting involvement in the immune response. Furthermore we show that anterior kidney phagocyte-enriched leukocyte suspensions express both chemokines and that this expression is upregulated by brief (4 h) stimulation with PMA, but not lipopolysaccharide. Neutrophilic granulocyte-enriched leukocytes display chemotaxis to human recombinant CXCL8 (hrCXCL8; interleukin-8), confirming CXC chemokine mediated chemotaxis of neutrophilic granulocytes in teleost fish. Factors secreted from carp phagocytes are also capable of inducing chemotaxis and secretion of these factors into culture supernatants is upregulated by PMA. Finally we demonstrate involvement of both CXC chemokines as well as CXCR1 and CXCR2 in acute Argulus japonicus infection. Collectively the data presented implicate the involvement of CXC chemokines in chemotaxis of fish neutrophils in a fashion that shares characteristics with the mammalian situation. However, the CXC chemokines involved differ enough from those involved in neutrophil chemotaxis in mammals to warrant their own nomenclature. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Immersion vaccination is common practice in aquaculture, because of its convenience for mass vaccination with sufficient protection. However, the mechanisms of antigen uptake and presentation, resulting in a protective immune response and the role of the innate immune system therein are largely unknown. The impact of immersion vaccination on fish physiology and on the ensuing innate and specific immune response was characterized with fluorescently labeled particulate and soluble model antigens. Vaccination of common carp by direct immersion (DI) or hyperosmotic immersion (HI; direct immersion, preceded by a brief immersion in a hypertonic solution) greatly enhanced the uptake of soluble, but not particulate antigen through temporary disruption of the integrity of the epithelia of gills and skin. Damage induced is mild and does not impose additional stress over the handling associated with immersion vaccination. Especially HI briefly but strongly activates the innate immune system. We conclude that HI more effectively increased the uptake of vaccine and enhanced the efficacy by which vaccine components are processed and presented by the innate immune system, dually enhancing the mucosal immune response. Understanding the mechanisms involved in uptake and processing of vaccine in the early phase of the immune response will greatly benefit the design of immersion vaccination. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Bi-directional communication between the hypothalamus–pituitary–adrenal (HPA)-axis and the sympathetic nervous system with the immune system is crucial to ensure homeostasis. Shared use of ligands and especially receptors forms a key component of this bi-directional interaction. Glucocorticoids (GC), the major end products of the HPA-axis differentially modulate immune function. Cytokines, especially interleukin-1 (IL-1), tumour necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and interleukin-6 (IL-6), ensure immune signalling to the neuroendocrine system. In addition, hormones from leukocyte origin such as corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) and β-endorphin, as well as centrally synthesised and secreted cytokines, contribute to the communication network.In teleost fish cortisol is the major product of the hypothalamus–pituitary–interrenal (HPI)-axis which is the teleost equivalent of the HPA-axis. Moderate and substantial increases in cortisol during stressful circumstances negatively affect B-lymphocytes, whereas rescue of neutrophilic granulocytes may support innate immunity. Recent elucidation of lower vertebrate cytokine sequences has facilitated research into neuroendocrine–immune interactions in teleosts and the first evidence for a significant function of interleukin-1 in the bi-directional communication is discussed. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]