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Statistics anxiety is experienced by a large numberof psychology students, and previous research has examined a range of potential correlates, including academic performance, mathematical ability and psychological predictors. These varying predictors are often considered separately, although there may be shared variance between them. In the present study a wide range of predictors were measured in a sample of 112 first year undergraduate psychology students. For statistics anxiety, trait anxiety was the clearest predictor, with students who have higher levels of trait anxiety also having higher levels of statistics anxiety. For attitudes towards statistics, students who have better mathematical ability, and greater enjoyment ofand confidence in their maths ability, also having more positive attitudes towards statistics. These findings suggest that models of statistics anxiety need to consider a wide range of predictors, which may in turn necessitate the development of a range of different interventions to alleviate statistics anxiety.

Statistics anxiety is extremely common in undergraduate psychology students. The Statistics Anxiety Rating Scale (STARS) is at present the most widely used measure to assess statistics anxiety, measuring six distinct scales: test and class anxiety, interpretation anxiety, fear of asking for help, worth of statistics, fear of statistics teachers and computational self-concept. In this paper we first review the existing research that uses the STARS with psychology undergraduates. We then provide an analysis of the factor and reliability analysis of the STARS measure using a sample of undergraduate psychology students (N=315). Factor analysis of the STARS yielded nine factors, rather than the six it is intended to measure, with some items indicating low reliability, as demonstrated by low factor loadings. On the basis of these data, we consider the further development and refinement of measures of statistics anxiety in psychology students.

Statistics anxiety has often been linked to performance in statistics modules for psychology students, despite this no research to date has examined whether attitudes towards statistics can predict whether or not a student chooses to carry on psychology from pre-tertiary to higher education. In this pilot study 41 second year A-level psychology students completed an online measure of statistics anxiety (Statistics Anxiety Rating Scale, STARS) and answered questions about their current A-levels and whether or not they were applying to study psychology at university. The findings showed that worth of statistics, but no other STARS measures significantly predicted whether or not an individual was planning on studying psychology at university. Findings are discussed primarily in relation to teacher variables that may impact subject choice and statistics anxiety in A-level students.

When processing facial emotion, most individuals are right hemisphere dominant; however there is variability in this pattern with males typically being more strongly lateralised than females. Relationship status has been found to influence the processing of facial stimuli in women, and therefore, in this research the lateralised processing of facial emotion is considered whilst taking into account the participant’s relationship status and sex. Using the chimeric faces test, with both infant and adult facial stimuli, it was shown that partnered participants, but not single participants, were more strongly lateralised for the processing of adult stimuli than infant stimuli, and that partnered women did not show any hemispheric bias. These findings suggest that the neuropsychological processing of emotion may change dependent on an individual’s relationship status, and are discussed in terms of the possible evolutionary significance of infant faces for individuals who are in a relationship and who wish to have children.

It has long been suggested that prenatal hormonal exposure influences the development of functional brain asymmetry, however there is relatively little research directly examining this association in non-verbal cognitive functioning. In this study the relationship between 2D:4D ratio and strength of lateralisation to the right hemisphere for processing facial emotion is examined in a large sample ( N = 475) of males and females. Left hand 2D:4D ratio was a significant predictor of strength of right hemisphere lateralisation for processing facial emotion, but particularly for the processing of facial expressions of disgust, happiness, sadness and surprise. Individuals with lower 2D:4D ratios, indicating higher levels of prenatal testosterone exposure, tended to be more strongly lateralised to the right hemisphere for the processing of both positive and negative facial emotion. However, there was no sex difference in this relationship, suggesting that the influence of prenatal testosterone is the same for males and females.

Research methods and statistical analysis is typically the least liked and most anxiety provoking aspect of a psychology undergraduate degree, in large part due to the mathematical component of the content. In this first cycle of a piece of action research, students’ mathematical ability is examined in relation to their performance across different assessments. A maths test, including only com onents relevant to psychological research and analysis, was designed and subsequently completed by 427 students. Factor analysis revealed three distinct facets: understanding of mathematical procedures; interpretation of findings; and understanding the semantics of mathematics. Only the procedural and interpretative factors were predictive of overall course performance. Higher scores on both factors predicted better performance on multiple choice questions assessment and an unseen exam, whereas only the interpretation factor predicted performance on a critical thinking assignment and a lab report. The findings are considered with a view to developing another cycle of action research that more actively involves students.

Reduced strength of lateralisation in patients with schizophrenia has been reported in a number of studies. However the exact nature of this relationship remains unclear. In this study, lateralisation for processing emotional faces was measured using the chimeric faces test and examined in relation to paranoia in a non-clinical sample. For males only, those with higher scores on a paranoia questionnaire had reduced lateralisation for processing negative facial emotion. For females there were no significant relationships. These findings suggest that atypical patterns of lateralisation for processing emotional stimuli may be implicated in, or associated with, increased levels of paranoia.

Previous research has shown that both anxiety and depression are associated with strength of lateralisation for the processing of emotive faces, although these clinical measures have always been considered in separate studies. In the present study, we measure depression and anxiety, within the same non-clinical sample, and consider whether these variables can predict strength of lateralisation, measured using the chimeric faces test. There are two key findings from this study. First, for females only, anxiety is negatively associated with right hemispheric superiority for processing of negative emotional expressions. Second, there was only one finding for depression, showing a relationship with strength of lateralisation for the processing of fearful faces that differed according to sex.

The chimeric faces test is a frequently used behavioural test of lateralisation; however the methodologies used vary considerably. In this experiment the one- and two-face versions of the test, using neutral/happy chimeras, were compared to see whether the laterality biases found are correlated. Both versions showed a significant left visual field (or half face) bias, indicating that both reflect the underlying right hemisphere superiority for processing positive facial emotion. Furthermore, the laterality bias was significantly correlated in both versions although reliability was higher for the two-face version.

A great number of studies have shown that non-clinical individuals rely predominantly on the right hemisphere to process facial emotion. Previous studies have shown that males suffering from Asperger's syndrome show a typical right hemisphere bias for processing facial emotion (happiness and sadness) but a reduced right hemisphere bias for processing facial identity. This study looks at the lateralisation of all six basic emotions using the chimeric faces test in 64 non-clinical participants (32 males, 32 females) and correlates it with their autistic traits measured using the Broad Autistic Phenotype Questionnaire. For males only, regression analyses showed a relationship between the aloof personality trait and lateralisation for fear, happiness, and surprise. Males with high autistic scores on the aloof personality subscale (showing a lack of interest in social interaction) were more strongly lateralised to the right hemisphere for processing fear, happiness, and surprise. For males there was no relationship with anger, disgust, sadness, or non-facial stimuli, and for females there were no significant relationships at all. The autistic traits of rigidity and pragmatic language were not significant predictors of emotion lateralisation. The over-reliance on the right hemisphere for processing facial emotion in males seems to support the idea that the autistic brain could be seen as hyper-masculinised, possibly due to prenatal testosterone exposure.

There are two contrasting hypotheses that attempt to explain how emotion perception might be organised in the brain. One suggests that all emotions are lateralised to the right hemisphere whereas the other suggests that emotions may be differently lateralised according to valence. Here these two theories are contrasted, in addition to considering the role of emotional intensity in explaining possible differences in strength of lateralisation across emotions. Participants completed a Chimeric Faces Test for each of the six basic emotions: anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness and surprise. All emotions showed significant lateralisation to the right hemisphere, however, differences in strength of lateralisation within the right hemisphere were found. Stronger patterns of right hemisphere lateralisation were found for positive emotions and for emotions of higher intensity. The results support the right-hemisphere hypothesis, but suggest that there may be variability in organisation within the right hemisphere across different types of emotion.

The research examining sex differences in functional lateralisation has shown varying results. While some provide evidence for males being more strongly lateralised than females, a number have shown either no relationship or the opposite pattern of findings. In this study we consider whether psychological gender identity might clarify some of the conflicting results in this area of research. Eight five participants (39 males) aged from 18 to 49 years old were tested. We found that psychological masculinity was associated with stronger patterns of lateralisation for the processing of a range of emotional expressions. We also found an interaction between biological sex and psychological gender identity, with a positive relationship between psychological masculinity and lateralisation found for males, but a negative relationship found for females. The possible role of hormonal exposure in this relationship is discussed.

Objectives Organic solvent exposure may be associated with cognitive impairment in later life although the evidence for this association is inconsistent. This study sought to examine the association between organic solvent exposure and cognitive function in later life. Methods A prospective longitudinal study set in Aberdeen, Scotland examined 336 men and women born in 1936 who participated in the 1947 Scottish Mental Survey. Cognitive function at age 67 years was measured using the Trail Making Test B (TMT B), the Digit Symbol (DS) test, and the Auditory Verbal Learning Test (AVLT). Occupational hygienists reviewed occupational histories, blind to cognitive function, and estimated lifetime solvent exposures. Multiple regression analyses were employed to explore the association between solvent exposure and cognitive performance after adjustment for confounders. Results After adjusting for childhood IQ, smoking, alcohol and sex, the solvent exposed group took on average almost 10 s longer than the unexposed group to complete the TMT B, a highly significant difference. For the DS test, after adjusting for childhood IQ, smoking and gender, the exposed group scored on average two points lower than the unexposed group, which was again highly significant. There was no evidence of an effect for cumulative solvent exposure on the TMT B or DS test. For the AVLT there were no significant differences associated with exposure. Conclusions This study of subjects with generally low exposures, found no clear evidence of an association between solvent exposure and cognitive function.

Evidence for an inverse relation between dietary intake of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) and age-related cognitive decline is inconsistent. This inconsistency may arise because the relation is present only in the absence of the apolipoprotein E epsilon4 (APOE epsilon4) allele.We aimed to determine the contribution of erythrocyte n-3 PUFA content to cognitive aging in the presence or absence of the APOE epsilon4 allele.We followed up 120 volunteers, born in 1936, at approximate ages of 64, 66, and 68 y. Their intelligence quotient at 11 y old was available. At first follow-up, we determined APOE genotype and measured the PUFA composition of erythrocyte membranes. Six cognitive tests were administered at all follow-ups. We related cognitive performance at approximately 64 y old and cognitive changes from approximately 64 to approximately 68 y old to erythrocyte n-3 PUFA composition on recruitment and to APOE epsilon4 allele status.Total n-3 PUFA and docosohexaenoic acid concentrations were associated with benefits for cognition at approximately 64 y old and from approximately 64 to approximately 68 y old. After adjustment for sex, APOE epsilon4 status, and intelligence quotient at 11 y old, the effects associated with total n-3 PUFA remained significant. Cognitive benefits were associated with higher erythrocyte n-3 PUFA content but were significant only in the absence of the APOE epsilon4 allele.These data are evidence of a gene x environment interaction for cognitive aging. They are relevant to the analysis of trials of n-3 PUFA supplements in cognitive aging and dementia prevention, and they support heterogeneity in cognitive aging and, possibly, in Alzheimer disease.

Statistics is perhaps one of the most challenging areas within the teaching and assessment of psychology. While a fair amount of attention has been given to this area within the context of undergraduate studies, rather less has been given to the ways in which these challenges may differ when teaching postgraduate students. This report describes an assignment that has now been used over a number of years within a postgraduate statistics module: the Statistics Chapter. For this assignment, students are required to write a statistics chapter aimed at second-year undergraduate psychology students. As part of this they must design their own data set, discuss the theoretical background behind their chosen method of analysis, explain how to run the analysis in SPSS and how to interpret and write up the results. The Statistics Chapter appears to provide an approachable method for assessing postgraduate statistical abilities.

Social support is associated with health in old age. However, it is unclear whether this association is because social support helps maintain health or because people who are healthier are also advantaged in other ways (cognitive ability, education, wealth etc.) and thus have better access to social support. To investigate possible causal direction, we examined social support in later life in relation to cognitive ability in childhood (11 years) and later life (64 years). Our participants were 266 adults aged about 64 years (132 men, 134 women) recruited to the Aberdeen Birth Cohort 1936 study. Higher childhood cognitive ability, but not cognitive ability in later life, was associated with receiving less practical and emotional support, and being less satisfied with the support received. This pattern of results suggests that the relationship between cognition and social support is determined early in life and continues into later life.

Lower childhood cognitive ability may be a risk factor for greater cognitive decline in late life and progression to dementia. To assess variation in age-related cognitive change, it is helpful to have valid measures of cognitive ability from early life. Here, we examine the relation between childhood intelligence and cognitive change in later life in two samples, one born in 1921 and the other in 1936. All participants completed the same test of mental ability (one of the Moray House Test series) at age about 11 years, and were re-examined on Raven’s Progressive Matrices at age 77 (1921-born) or age 64 (1936-born). Where possible, the 1921 sample was re-tested at the age of about 80 years old and the 1936 sample re-tested at about 66 years. After taking into account various covariates, including sex, education and occupation, childhood intelligence was a significant predictor of cognitive change in later life. Results were in the direction that participants with lower childhood mental ability experienced relatively greater cognitive decline, whereas those of higher childhood mental ability showed improved performance. This result suggests that higher premorbid cognitive ability is protective of decline in later life.

Repetition priming refers to facilitated recognition of stimuli that have been seen previously. Although a great deal of work has examined the properties of repetition priming for familiar faces, little has examined the neuroanatomical basis of the effect. Two experiments are presented in this paper that combine the repetition priming paradigm with a divided visual field methodology to examine lateralized recognition of familiar faces. In the first experiment participants were presented with prime faces unilaterally to each visual field and target faces foveally. A significant priming effect was found for prime faces presented to the right hemisphere, but not for prime faces presented to the left hemisphere. In Experiment 2, prime and target faces were presented unilaterally, either to the same visual field or to the opposite visual field (i.e., either within hemisphere or across hemispheres). A significant priming effect was found for the within right hemisphere condition, but not for the within left hemisphere condition, replicating the findings of the first experiment. Priming was also found in both of the across hemispheres conditions, suggesting that interhemispheric cooperation occurs to aid recognition. Taken in combination these experiments provide two main findings. First, an asymmetric repetition priming effect was found, possibly as a result of asymmetric levels of activation following recognition of a prime face, with greater priming occurring within the right hemisphere. Second, there is evidence for asymmetric interhemispheric cooperation with transfer of information from the right hemisphere to the left hemisphere to facilitate recognition.

Sex differences in lateralisation have been examined frequently, but have found varying and contradictory results. The experiment presented in this paper examines the lateralisation of processing positive facial emotion in 276 right handed undergraduates (138 males, 138 females). All participants completed two behavioural tests of lateralisation: a handedness preference questionnaire and a chimeric faces emotion judgement task, which measured strength of lateralisation for the perception of positive facial emotion. A highly significant difference was found for the chimeric faces task only: males were more strongly lateralised than females, although both males and females tended to be right hemisphere dominant. The results suggest that females are more bilaterally distributed and hence have greater access to mechanisms located in each hemisphere.

Previous research has indicated that 70‐85% of women and girls show a bias to hold infants, or dolls, to the left side of their body. This bias is not matched in males (e.g. deChateau, Holmberg & Winberg, 1978; Todd, 1995). This study tests an explanation of cradling preferences in terms of hemispheric specialization for the perception of facial emotional expression. Thirtytwo right-handed participants were given a behavioural test of lateralization and a cradling task. Females, but not males, who cradled a doll on the left side were found to have significantly higher laterality quotients than right cradlers. Results indicate that women cradle on the side of the body that is contralateral to the hemisphere dominant for face and emotion processing and suggest a possible explanation of gender differences in the incidence of cradling.

OBJECTIVE Our aim was to investigate an association between prenatal sex hormone exposure and dementia diagnosis. BACKGROUND Some evidence indicates that relatively low testosterone levels are a risk factor for men to develop Alzheimer disease (AD). Most research has examined current rather than premorbid testosterone levels, and little research has addressed testosterone and AD in women. METHODS In 20 men and women diagnosed with AD and 20 controls, we estimated prenatal exposure to testosterone and estrogen using the ratio of the length of the second to the fourth digit (2D:4D). We analyzed the data using a 2 (men versus women)×2 (controls versus AD participants) analysis of variance. RESULTS The men with AD had significantly higher 2D:4D ratios than the male controls, indicating lower levels of prenatal testosterone and higher levels of prenatal estrogen exposure. The women with AD had significantly lower 2D:4D ratios than the female controls, indicating higher levels of prenatal testosterone and lower levels of prenatal estrogen exposure. CONCLUSIONS These findings suggest that lower levels of prenatal testosterone and higher levels of estrogen exposure are a risk factor for AD in men, and that higher levels of prenatal testosterone and lower levels of prenatal estrogen exposure are a risk factor for women. Risk for AD may be related to prenatal exposure to a sex hormone different from an individual's chromosomal sex.

Previous research examining the possible association between emotion lateralisation and social anxiety has found conflicting results. In this paper two studies are presented to assess two aspects related to different features of social anxiety: fear of negative evaluation (FNE) and emotion regulation. Lateralisation for the processing of facial emotion was measured using the chimeric faces test. Individuals with greater FNE were more strongly lateralised to the right hemisphere for the processing of anger, happiness and sadness; and, for the processing of fearful faces the relationship was found for females only. Emotion regulation strategies were reduced to two factors: positive strategies and negative strategies. For males, but not females, greater reported use of negative emotion strategies is associated with stronger right hemisphere lateralisation for processing negative emotions. The implications for further understanding the neuropsychological processing of emotion in individuals with social anxiety are discussed.

Strength of lateralization for processing facial emotion becomes more right hemisphere lateralized throughout childhood, but sex differences in this development are not currently understood. This study examines patterns of lateralization for emotion discrimination in 185 6–10-year-olds. Strength of right hemisphere lateralization was stronger in the older children, and right hemisphere dominance emerged at around age 8. Children who were more strongly lateralized performed with greater accuracy on a behavioral test of emotion discrimination and this relationship was significant for boys but not girls, demonstrating that there is a relationship between lateralization and performance (particularly, the discrimination of emotions).

It is now relatively well established that the right hemisphere is specialised for processing facial emotion; however, there is variability in this pattern of lateralisation. One factor that has been examined is atypical lateralisation in individuals diagnosed with clinical psychological conditions. To date the evidence regarding the neuropsychological processing of emotional stimuli in individuals with depression is contradictory. In this study 160 participants completed the Beck Depression Inventory and the chimeric faces test, a test of lateralisation for the processing of facial expressions of each of the six basic emotions. A negative relationship between depression and lateralisation was found for females only, showing that women with higher depression scores tend to be less strongly lateralised to the right hemisphere, or even lateralised to the left hemisphere, for processing facial emotion. The strength of this relationship also varied across the different emotions with the clearest results for the processing of anger, disgust, and fear. There were no significant findings for males. The possible reasons for there being a sex difference in our findings and an attempt to reconcile the disparate findings within this area of research are discussed.

There is an increasing amount of evidence which suggests that each hemisphere is differently specialised for processing facial stimuli, with the right hemisphere specialised for the processing of configural information and the left hemisphere specialised for the processing of featural information. While there is evidence for this distinction from studies of face recognition, it has not been shown in studies of lateralisation for processing facial emotion. In this study the chimeric faces test was used with faces expressing anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness or surprise, presented in either an upright or an inverted orientation. When presented upright, a significant right hemisphere bias was found for all six emotions. However, when inverted, a significant left hemisphere bias was found for the processing of happiness and surprise, but not for the processing of negative emotions (although the analysis was approaching significance for anger). These findings support the hypothesis that each hemisphere is differently specialised for processing facial emotion, but contradicts previous work that examined the effects of inversion on chimeric face stimuli.

Although early research suggested that the right hemisphere was dominant for processing faces, more recent studies have provided evidence for both hemispheres being involved, at least to some extent. In this experiment we examined hemispheric specialisations by using a lateralised repetition-priming paradigm with selectively degraded faces. Configurally degraded prime faces produced negative priming when presented to the left visual field (right hemisphere) and positive priming (facilitation) when presented to the right visual field (left hemisphere). Featurally degraded prime faces produced the opposite pattern of effects: positive priming when presented to the left visual field (right hemisphere) and negative priming when presented to the right visual field (left hemisphere). These results support the proposal that each hemisphere is differentially specialised for processing distinct forms of facial information: the right hemisphere for configural information and the left hemisphere for featural information.

An increasing amount of research has shown a relationship between hormonal exposure and functional lateralisation. In this study different sources of hormonal exposure were examined: prenatal exposure, estimated using the 2D:4D ratio, and later life exposure through examining the effects of hormone replacement therapy. In addition to considering multiple sources of hormonal exposure, three tests of functional lateralisation were used: two versions of the chimeric faces test, one using positive emotion and the other using negative emotion, and the landmark task. The same effects were found across all three measures of lateralisation. Lower 2D:4D ratios, which indicate high levels of prenatal testosterone exposure, were associated with stronger right hemisphere dominance. Later life hormonal exposure was not found to be associated with any of the lateralisation measures. This finding suggests a relationship between prenatal hormonal exposure and brain organisation.

The way in which the semantic information associated with people is organised in the brain is still unclear. Most evidence suggests either bilateral or left hemisphere lateralisation. In this paper we use a lateralised semantic priming paradigm to further examine this neuropsychological organisation. A clear semantic priming effect was found with greater priming occurring when semantically related prime faces were presented to the left visual field than when presented to the right visual field. Possible explanations for this finding are discussed in terms of the bilateral distribution of different classes of semantic information, a possible role of associative processes within semantic priming and interhemispheric transfer.

The chimeric faces test is a frequently used behavioural test of lateralisation for cognitive processing. Performance on this task is typically quantified in terms of bias towards selecting faces where positive facial emotion is expressed in the viewer's left visual field, indicating right hemisphere dominance for the task. This paper examines an alternative measure that may be extracted from responses to the chimeric faces test: reaction time bias. There was a strong positive correlation between the two asymmetry measures, which remained even after controlling for sex and handedness. The possible uses of reaction time bias in the measurement of cerebral lateralisation are discussed.

Understanding of emotions has been shown to develop between the ages of 4 and 10 years; however, individual differences exist in this development. While previous research has typically examined these differences in terms of developmental and/or social factors, little research has considered the possible impact of neuropsychological development on the behavioural understanding of emotions. Emotion processing tends to be lateralised to the right hemisphere of the brain in adults, yet this pattern is not as evident in children until around the age of 10 years. In this study 136 children between 5 and 10 years were given both behavioural and neuropsychological tests of emotion processing. The behavioural task examined expression regulation knowledge (ERK) for prosocial and self-presentational hypothetical interactions. The chimeric faces test was given as a measure of lateralisation for processing positive facial emotion. An interaction between age and lateralisation for emotion processing was predictive of children’s ERK for only the self-presentational interactions. The relationships between children’s ERK and lateralisation for emotion processing changes across the three age groups, emerging as a positive relationship in the 10-year-olds. The 10-years-olds who were more lateralised to the right hemisphere for emotion processing tended to show greater understanding of the need for regulating negative emotions during interactions that would have a self-presentational motivation. This finding suggests an association between the behavioural and neuropsychological development of emotion processing.

The divided visual field methodology has been used to examine a wide variety of lateralised processes. When conducting such studies it is important to employ a number of strict controls in order to maximise the effectiveness of the paradigm for examining the processing of stimuli by each hemisphere. The use of these controls is discussed in this paper. The following issues are discussed: selection of participants; methods of fixation control; presenting stimuli unilaterally; methods of responding; and measures that can be taken. The use of the divided visual field paradigm to examine interhemispheric cooperation is also discussed. Employing the recommended controls provides an effective and relatively easy method of examining the role of each hemisphere in the processing of stimuli.