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This study aims to develop a multi-dimensional night-time economy vitality index (NTEVI) to measure the vitality of night-time economic (NTE) activities in Zhejiang Province, China, covering its 11 cities and 90 counties. Comprising 44 supply and demand indicators of the NTE, the index was composed of an overall index and six major sub-indices that measured the vitality of six typical NTE subsectors, including catering, shopping, recreation, accommodation, touring, and fitness. The NTEVI was calculated using a unique multi-source dataset based on hourly online transaction data from a leading Chinese online-to-offline service platform, monthly night-time electricity consumption data, and official statistics from 2019 to 2020. Robustness and sensitivity analyses were conducted to ensure high credibility of the index results. The findings of this study suggested that the NTEVI was highly and significantly correlated with night light indices, economic indicators, and tourism demand measures. By identifying regional and temporal differences across several service sectors over time at the county, city, and provincial levels, the NTEVI serves as a powerful numerical and visual tool: it offers key information to guide policy formulation, resource allocation, and policy evaluation. In the context of COVID-19, the index analyses also reflect the NTE recovery process in Zhejiang Province. Our findings indicate that it is important for the Chinese government, regional authorities, and enterprises to encourage the NTE as a main driver of economic revitalization.

The article presents the results of the vitality structure analysis of 23 natural cenopopulations ofColchicum bulbocodiumsubsp.versicolorin the Lower Volga region in the years 2014–2019. The viability of cenopopulations within the studied region varied greatly over the years of monitoring, from 0.45 to 1.51. Cenopopulations in the northeast of the Lower Volga region, compared to southwestern cenopopulations, exhibited lower vitality index, greater instability and a wider range of variability of the latter parameter. Also, most morphological characters poorly correlated with one another. A high correlation was revealed only between two characters, and a medium correlation only in six pairs of characters. The largest number of significant-correlation relationships was registered for the plant height and diameter, the length and width of the lower leaf, and the length of the marigold. Based on theIQparameter and theQcriterion, the absolute majority of cenopopulations were prosperous in all the years of monitoring. The depressive state was found only in some cenopopulations and only in certain years of monitoring (mainly in 2018). Considering that, compared to other years of monitoring, in the spring of 2018, the average temperatures during the period of the subspecies’ active vegetation and flowering were extremely low, we suggested that it could have resulted in extreme growing conditions for the subspecies in the studied region and, consequently, a decrease in vitality of cenopopulations.

This paper analyzes the current state of landscaping in Ishim. The data on the qualitative and quantitative characteristics of woody plants have been obtained for the first time; the assessment of trees and shrubs state is based on the analysis of the vitality index. A database of green plants within 21 objects in Ishim was created and analyzed. The paper also contains data on the species diversity of trees and shrubs in Ishim. It turned out that the objects under study have trees and shrubs placed in special dividing strips, linearly, in rows or in small compact groups, less often they are planted singly. The species composition is represented by 47 species from 28 genera, 16 families and 2 divisions. The biomorphological structure is represented by trees (25, or 53% of species) and shrubs (22, or 47% of species). The total composition of tree and shrub plantations, determined by the number of trunks (bushes) and the percentage of woody plants, is 2854; the composition of the preserved ones is 2 815 (99%) pieces; the ones assigned for removal are 39 (1%) pcs. The vitality index shows that among 85% of the studied objects of the town at the time of the survey were healthy, among 10% of the objects they were qualified as damaged, among 5% of them were severely damaged. Based on the results of examining crowns and trunks of woody plants, signs of diseases and pests, a plan of measures for the treatment, restoration and preservation of woody plants was drawn up and recommendations were given for caring, sanitary felling and removal of single specimens.

Resident interest in local food has been growing across all areas of the supply chain in the United States. To continue this surge in interest, local food system stakeholders should strengthen area...

Objective This study aimed to clarify the relationship between the oral intake function and functional status, as well as to determine the aspects of functional status potentially predicting the effects of dysphagia rehabilitation in the maintenance stage, in elder outpatients. Methods This study was conducted in a clinic, specialised in rehabilitation of patients with dysphagia. The participants were 93 non-tube-fed patients 65 years of age or older. The participants were scheduled to undergo the initial examination for oral intake function and functional status, and then to receive dysphagia rehabilitation for 1 year. After rehabilitation period, oral intake function was re-evaluated, and the elements of functional status potentially related to the effects of dysphagia rehabilitation were determined. Results It was found that the lower the participants' oral intake function levels, the higher the prevalence of reduced parameters of functional status. After 1-year dysphagia rehabilitation, the oral intake function was maintained or improved in 70 (75.3%) participants, but had diminished in 23 (24.7%). Our analysis revealed that participants with higher Vitality Index scores and MMSE at the time of initial examination were significantly more likely to show maintained or improved oral intake function at 1 year (odds ratio[OR], 1.76; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.14-2.71; OR, 1.17; 95% CI, 1.06-1.28, respectively). Conclusions It became apparent that the lower the oral intake function level at the initial examination, the higher the prevalence of reduced multidimensional functional status. Mental function was found to predict the effects of dysphagia rehabilitation in the maintenance stage.

Identifying successful development priorities for local food systems (LFSs) is a challenge for pro­ducers, LFS advocates, Extension agents, and policymakers. Consumer perceptions and prefer­ences regarding what constitutes an active, healthy, and vibrant LFS often differ within and between diverse communities. Producers, development entities, and others would benefit from rapid assessment processes that provide detailed information on consumer preferences and potential market opportunities within their LFS. In this paper, we introduce the analytic possi­bilities of our Local Food System Vitality Index (LFSVI). Using data collected from a pilot survey in Lexington, Kentucky, we rapidly assess the per­formance of 20 different components of our LFS. The LFSVI differs from most other food system and quality-of-life indices by focusing on the per­ceptions of resident food consumers. In our analysis, we identify that Lexington resi­dents generally associate farmers markets, farm-to-fork restaurants, local product diversity, and retail sourcing of local food with high overall vitality of the local food system. While residents score the first three components as high performing, they perceive the retail component to be less functional. We use results such as these to compare which aspects of the LFS are valued versus which are high performing. We do this comparison across different resident food consumer segments in and between geographic locations. Throughout our analysis, we discuss how this index method is gen­erally applicable and conducive to identifying LFS development priorities.

Two vitality index approaches have been demonstrated to be good proxies of discard survival in similar fishing and environmental conditions: Reflex Action Mortality Predictors combined with injuries (RI) scores that measure the proportion of impaired reflexes and injuries, and a simpler, quicker, but less precise approach based on ordinal categories related to fish body movements and injuries (semi-quantitative assessment, SQA). This study assessed and compared these two approaches for five species (two flatfishes, skates, a seabass and a catshark) discarded in a coastal otter trawl fishery in the Bay of Biscay. All species displayed good vitality status according to both indices and were not very sensitive to the fishing nor their biological conditions. Still, flatfishes were more sensitive to discarding while the catshark was very resistant. Furthermore, depending on species, the impairment of some reflexes and injuries were associated to stressing factors, highlighting the potential of the approach but also the complexity involved in building a relevant score. The SQA index was highly correlated with the RI score and was sensitive to more sources of stressing factors for similar predictive performance. While the relevance of these two approaches should be ultimately determined by the strength and consistency of their association with discard survival, these results suggest that the RI approach was not more effective than SQA despite the extra labour and time involved in collecting the data.

The assessment of mature urban tree vitality using physiological measurements is still in its infancy. Chlorophyll fluorescence is a method for assessing tree vitality that has potential for use in urban environments, particularly on trunk bark, which is easy to access from the ground. Here we describe how we compared bark and leaf fluorescence in a variety of street and park trees (Ficus macrophylla Pers., Platanus &times, acerifolia (Aiton) Willd., and Ulmus parvifolia Jacq.) with pre-dawn water potential as a way of determining the cause of potential physiological stress in the summer of 2012. Statistical relationships were observed between bark chlorophyll fluorescence and pre-dawn water potential in Ficus macrophylla and Platanus &times, acerifolia, but were not as consistent in Ulmus parvifolia. In addition, bark and leaf chlorophyll fluorescence were compared with an urban visual vitality index both in autumn 2011 and summer 2012. In this case statistical relationships between bark chlorophyll fluorescence values and urban tree visual vitality were almost non-existent in the Ficus macrophylla and Platanus &times, acerifolia trees, however, statistical relationships were significant between bark chlorophyll fluorescence and the urban tree vitality index in Ulmus parvifolia. Bark chlorophyll fluorescence may become a useful tool for measuring physiological stress in trees, but further work needs to be undertaken to clarify and better understand the varying responses of different tree species.

Objectives To (1) measure 4 physiologic metrics before esophagectomy, (2) use these in an index to predict composite postoperative outcome after esophagectomy, and (3) compare predictive accuracy of this index to that of the Fried Frailty Index and Modified Frailty Index. Methods Grip strength (kilograms), 30-second chair sit-stands (number), 6-minute walk distance (meters), and normalized psoas muscle area (cm2/m) were measured for 77 consenting patients from January 1, 2018, to April 1, 2019. Imbalanced random forest classification estimated probability of a composite postoperative outcome, which included mortality, respiratory complications, anastomotic leak, delirium, length of stay ≥14 days, discharge to nursing facility, and readmission. G-mean error was used to compare predictive accuracy among indexes. Results Median grip strength was 38 kg (25th-75th percentiles, 31-44), number of sit-stands 11 (10-14), psoas muscle area to height ratio 6.9 cm2/m (6.0-8.2), and 6-minute walk distance 407 m (368-451). There was generally weak correlation between these metrics, with the highest between 30-second sit-stands and 6-minute walk distance (r = 0.57). Age, degree of patient-reported exhaustion, and the 4 objective metrics comprised the Esophageal Vitality Index, which had a lower G-mean error of 32% (31-33) than the Fried Frailty Index, 37% (37-38), and the Modified Frailty Index, 48% (47-48). Conclusions The Esophageal Vitality Index, an objective, simple assessment consisting of grip strength, 30-second chair sit-stands, 6-minute walk, and psoas muscle area to height ratio outperformed commonly used frailty indexes in predicting postesophagectomy mortality and morbidity. The index provides a robust picture of patients' fitness for surgery beyond the qualitative “eyeball” test.

Taking into account the passage of time, the original economic vitality index will vary with changes in social development, we use the BP neural network nearly a decade as the original GDP data for the next 30 years the GDP forecast. BP neural network in 1985, proposed by Rumelhart, the algorithm solves the system of learning problems multilayer neural network connection weights hidden layer [1].It consists of an input layer, a hidden layer, and an output layer. The principle is to continuously adjust the network weights and thresholds by transmitting errors backward and then correcting the errors to achieve the desired input-output mapping.

Aim In the present study we investigated the effect of laughter therapy on physiological and psychological function in older people. Design An open‐label trial. Methods Seventeen older people who regularly attended an elderly day care centre were recruited. Stand‐up comedy as laughter therapy was performed once a week for 4 weeks. Parameters of physiological and psychological function were evaluated before and after laughter therapy. Results Laughter therapy intervention resulted in a significant reduction in systolic blood pressure and heart rate, accompanied by a significant increase in plasma concentration of serotonin and a significant decrease in salivary concentration of chromogranin A. Questionnaire surveys of SF‐8, GDS‐15, and Vitality Index demonstrated alleviation of depression and improvement of sociability and activity in older people. Laughter therapy could be expected to become a practical treatment to improve quality of life of older people in an elderly day care centre.

Species that have a high likelihood of surviving the discarding process have become great concern since the European Union reformed the Common Fisheries Policy and enacted a landing obligation prohibiting the discarding any individuals of species under quota. Among species presenting an elevated survival potential, plaice ( Pleuronectes platessa ) is one of the most discarded in the coastal otter trawl fishery in the English Channel. The objective of this study is to provide the most reliable estimates of plaice survival after release in commercial conditions, and to identify the factors that influence survival rates. A captivity experiment was conducted in January–February in the English fishery to assess the survival of discarded plaice as a function of a semi-quantitative index of fish vitality, which has been demonstrated to be a good proxy of fish survival in comparable fishing and environmental conditions. This study examined the potential of this index to estimate discard survival in three trials from the English and French fisheries and at three different seasons. The vitality index was then used to analyse the influence of several factors (fishing practices, environmental conditions and fish biological characteristics) on the discard survival. The survival rates for plaice were accurately estimated at 62.8% in January–February, 66.6% in November and 45.2% in July. While these rates remained substantial whatever the fishing, environmental or fish biological conditions, the time fish spent on the deck, the bottom and air temperatures, the tow depth and the fish length had a significant influence on plaice survival. In practice, plaice survival could be enhanced by releasing the fish early during catch sorting and avoiding exposure to extreme air temperatures.

The European Commission landing obligation, including species-specific “high survival” exemptions, has established a need for accurate discard survival estimates. This study presents the first discard survival estimates on-board Dutch commercial pulse trawlers. During seven, six, and one fishing trip(s), respectively, undersized plaice (Pleuronectes platessa), sole (Solea solea), and dab (Limanda limanda) were collected, assessed for vitality and subsequently monitored up to 21 days. Uncorrected for any potential impacts from predation, tagging, research-related handling, or holding conditions overall survival for plaice (n = 349), sole (n = 226), and dab (n = 187) was assessed as 15% [95% CI: 11–19%], 29% [95% CI: 24–35%], and 16% [95% CI: 10–26%] respectively. Survival was mainly effected by water temperature and factors linked to the fishing vessel. Fish length was not found to affect survival. Catch processing time and haul duration affected plaice survival but not sole. Vitality index, which averages reflex impairment and external damage scores, correlated with survival and may be developed as a proxy for discard survival. Compared to tickler-chain beam trawlers, pulse trawlers showed relatively higher discard survival under fishing conditions pertinent to these studies.

Purpose: With the aging of society in developed countries and advances in surgical technology in recent years, surgery is increasing in elderly patients. When performing surgery in older patients, both surgical outcomes and the maintenance of postoperative quality of life (QOL) are important issues. This study investigated surgical outcomes and postoperative QOL in octogenarians who underwent cardiac valvular surgery.Methods and Results: Fifty-nine (16 males) octogenarians (80–89 years old, mean age, 82.4 ± 2.4 years) underwent cardiac valvular surgery between August 1999 and June 2011. A QOL questionnaire, which included the Barthel Index (BI), Fillenbaum Instrumental Activities of Daily Living (FIADL), and the Vitality Index (VI), was sent to all survivors. Kaplan-Meier analysis was used to assess survival. Hospital mortality was 1.6% (1 patient). The 3-, 5-, and 7-year survival rates were 81.2%, 75.4%, and 67.8%, respectively. The BI showed that 87.5% of patients did not require caregiving, the FIADL showed that 32.5% were highly independent, and the VI showed that 87.5% were motivated to live.Conclusions: Short-term outcomes were satisfactory, with low complication and mortality rates. Mid-term outcomes showed maintenance of the minimal required ADL and good motivation for living. However, independence in social activities was decreased, suggesting the need for comprehensive social support.

The morphology of trees was studied in four sample plots located within the Pilsko high mountain spruce forest. Between the years 1950-1970 a single-tree selection system (Einzelplenterung) was used in the stands Pilsko 1 and 2, whereas in a third stand, Pilsko 3, selection was by group cutting (Gruppenplenterung). The tree-stand Pilsko 4 was generated by artificial restocking of a clear-cut area. The live crown ratio, coefficient of slenderness (h/d) and vitality of these four stands was compared. Group cutting (Pilsko 3), resembling a mountain selection system, produced the highest live crown ratio, lowest coefficient of slenderness (h/d) and highest vitality index of the four tree-stands examined. The spruces grown in the diversified tree-stands where a single-cutting system was used had features indicative of lower stability. In the artificial one-storey and even-aged stands, the two features that determine tree stability (namely, live crown ratio and coefficient of slenderness) had the worst values compared the remaining three stands. Consequently, to improve the stability of high mountain spruce forests in the Beskidy Mountains, under active environmental protection, we recommend the creation of groups within the forest, thus producing an irregular shelterwood system of group cuttings within a belt of closed forest, or a mountain selection system within a loose spruce forest.

Knowledge of the brown crab's (Cancer pagurus Linnaeus 1758) tolerance to emersion related to air temperatures and duration is scarce. In the current study, the condition of the brown crab was examined during emersion in laboratory experiments simulating dry storage and transport at air temperatures between 2–20°C. Samples of hemolymph were taken at different intervals simultaneously as the crab was classified using a vitality index based on behavior and responses. Individual variances in hemolymph pH, total ammonia (TA), lactate, and glucose were large; but, in general, pH decreased and TA and lactate increased during emersion, most at the highest temperatures. When hemolymph samples were grouped according to vitality index, deterioration was found for pH, TA, and lactate as the vitality dropped, whereas no trend was found for glucose. Vitality of crabs was reduced during emersion, with the greatest reduction being crabs exposed to high temperatures. To secure strong and healthy crabs, exposure ...

Comparison between the sperm DNA fragmentation test using the sperm chromatin dispersion technique and the vitality index measured with the acridine orange test

Cambium electrical resistance (CER) is explored as a rapid-assessment method of measuring of forest vitality and disease damage. A five year study in a 10-year-old mixed plantation of Alder (Alnus glutinosa, L.) and Oak (Quercus petraea (Mattuschka) Liebl.) created for the reclamation of surface-coal mined land in South Wales found a negative correlation between CER and tree maturity and no correlation between CER and fertiliser treatment levels. However, it detected strong significant correlations between CER and both a tree vitality index and diameter breast height (DBH) after five years. In fact, CER shows very strong and significant negative correlations with DBH recorded in 2007 and 2002, while tree vitality correlates more strongly with DBH than CER. Partial correlation of the data finds that when these data are controlled for the effect of DBH–the correlation between CER and vitality is no longer significant, while partial correlations between vitality and DBH in both 2002 and 2007–controlled for C...

Healthy thalli of Parmelia sulcata Taylor were transplanted to 8 localities in the surroundings of a power station (La Robla, León, Spain), the sole pollution source in the region. Changes in chlorophyll a fluorescence were monitored in the transplants 12 months, 18 months and 24 months after transplantation. Statistically significant differences were observed in the ratio of variable to maximal fluorescence, non-photochemical fluorescence quenching and vitality index. The decrease in fluorescence parameters was higher in the localities of Cuadros and Rabanal de Fenar, which are situated a few kilometres away from the power station and in the same direction as the prevailing winds.

Treatment discussions in the field of locally advanced prostate cancer have seen an increasing emphasis on issues of patient choice and quality of life, particularly as active treatment interventions can result in side effects such as bladder, bowel and sexual problems. The Vitality Index (VI) has been developed as a new simple decision tool to support the specialist nurse in patient consultations. The VI helps nurses and other health professionals, as well as patients, to discuss and assess the side effects of available treatments and their impact on the individual's lifestyle. The aim is to limit the compromise of a patient's quality of life within the context of disease management.

The Vitality of Obese Patients after a Weight Reduction by Fasting Introduction: The objective documentation of the positive results of natural medicine or physiotherapy gains raising importance in medicine. Objective: The aim of the study was to investigate the application of the vitality test according to Pothig® in the objective holistic evaluation of treatment by natural and physical medicine. Subjects and Methods: In 48 obese patients (28 males and 20 females) with a body mass index of 32.1 to 56.5 kg/m2 a weight reduction therapy was carried out for 21 days (16–25 days) by means of fasting according to Buchinger, accompanied by physiotherapeutic treatments. At the beginning and at the end all patients underwent a multidisciplinary functional diagnosis by means of the vitality test according to Pothig® and a bioelectrical impedance analysis. On the basis of the 47 measured parameters of the entire body function (physical, mental and emotional/social) the Vitality Index and the Functional Age Index (FAI) were calculated. Results: The reduction of body weight was 9.1 ± 2.4 (5.1–15.0) kg, the reduction of body fat 5.5 ± 1.3 (3.3–8.5) kg. At the beginning 31% of the patients showed a reduced vitality, i.e. the FAI was at least 5 years (maximum 16 years) higher then the real age. 56% of the patients matched the real age and in 13% of the patients the FAI was better with respect to the corresponding age group. During the treatment 94% of the patients showed an improvement of their FAI by 5 ± 3 years on average (maximum 12 years). Conclusions: With the help of the presented multidisciplinary vitality test it is possible to objectively document the positive results of natural medicine and physical medicine on the whole human organism.

To evaluate verbal communication ability in the elderly, we developed a new portable "mini-communication test (MCT)" with 13 sub-scales, which was constructively validated based on 45 items from other reported scales. Clinical reliability and validity were tested in 354 inpatients in a long-term care hospital (81.9 +/- 8.3 years old) and 124 inpatients (80.39 +/- 8.1 years old) and 34 outpatients (76.5 +/- 7.0 years old) in Kyorin University Hospital. All patients were evaluated in approximately 7 minutes each. The test-retest correlation coefficient was 0.99. Inter-rater coefficient of variation was 0.107. The Cronbach alpha value of the test was 0.93. MCT positively correlated with the Barthel Index (r = 0.65, p < 0.01). Hasegawa Dementia Scale Revised version (r = 0.93, p < 0.001) and Vitality Index (r = 0.66, p < 0.01). MCT could be a new tool to assess communication ability in elderly patients with or without dementia.

Visual inspection and sensory analysis are the only suitable ways to assess the quality of hazelnuts under routine conditions. To obtain a more objective parameter for the freshness, a fast and easy-to-use method was developed. It is based on the well-known test for the germination capacity of seeds where their vitality is determined by use of 2,3,5-triphenyltetrazolium chloride (TTC) which is reduced by flavo enzymes to 1,3,5-triphenylformazane, which appears red. For the determination, 100 hazelnut halves were embedded in TTC containing methyl cellulose gel on a glass plate and kept at 35 °C in the dark. After 6 h, the cut planes of viable nuts were stained red, the cut planes of rotten nuts were yellow or brown, and the colour of dead or mould-infected nuts remained unchanged. The colour pattern was examined either visually by counting the coloured halves or with computer support using image editing software. The ratio of the sum of coloured areas to the total area of the hazelnut cut planes gave a measure of the average degree of viability ("vitality index"). The analysis of several samples of hazelnuts of well-defined age and storage conditions confirmed the efficiency of the method.

Objective: The purpose of this pilot study was to examine the effects of an intervention of the horticultural activities program in elderly people with mild to moderate dementia. Methods: The study design was a before–after study. The subjects were 11 elderly people with dementia. The horticultural activities program was developed to support mental, behavioral, social, and cognitive aspects of well-being in elderly patients. The program was conducted once a week for a total of six weeks. Vitality Index (VI) and Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) were used to determine the effects of the horticultural activities program. Results: The results showed that VI and MMSE scores significantly improved immediately after intervention compared with those at baseline. In addition, the scores significantly decreased after 1 month of intervention compared with those immediately after the intervention. Conclusions: In this study, VI and MMSE scores of elderly people with mild to moderate dementia improved after participation in the horticultural activities program. However, as the number of subjects was small in the present study, further studies are required to fully elucidate the effects of a horticultural activities program.

This investigation was carried out to screen 45 tomatoes inbred-lines’ response to drought at germination and seedling stage. These inbred-lines which were collected from different countries were screened with osmotic concentration of 12.5% polyethylene glycol 6000 while their respective control treatments were treated using distilled water for twelve days at germination stage. Relative germination energy, relative germination rate, relative germination index, relative vitality index and the relative PEG injury rate were computed to identify the most tolerant inbred-lines on germination stage. Inbred-lines TTI1103B-2, A0911, Roma, L12, and TTD210B were found to be the most tolerant. While inbred-lines L9, TTI1109B-1-2-1, A4, B6 and A7 were the most sensitive to drought. Moreover, analysis of variance revealed significant differences among the inbred-lines studied. The experiment was repeated for confirmation and the result was similar. An additional study was conducted on 30 days old seedlings to observe their water stress response at their seedling stage. A total of 30 inbred-lines, 10 inbred-lines each from tolerant, moderate and sensitive; were selected based on the results found at germination stage. After proper watering for 30 days, watering was stopped for the following 10 days. After that, the dead and alive was counted. The seedlings were then re-watered for the following one week and those recovered from dead were counted again. Finally, the dead percentage and recovery percentage was computed as an indicator of water stress tolerance. And the result was very similar to the experiment done on germination stage.

A new method is proposed for estimating vitality or growth potential for saplings of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.), based on height, diameter and height increment. A two-stage process was used to establish the vitality index. The logarithms of height, diameter and height increment were regressed against age, to adjust for the wide range of ages present in our data (c. 10,000 saplings with ages spanning 4-50 years). Then principal component analysis was used to obtain coefficients, which were, in turn, standardized on each axis to provide a vitality index scaled in standard deviations. This standardized scale allows the rank of an individual in the population to be assessed, and draws attention to possible outliers. The use of ageadjusted residuals ensured that the estimator was independent of age, and stable over a wide age range. The first principal component indicates if a sapling is relatively tall (weight = 0.5), thick (w = 0.5) or fast-growing (w = 0.7) for its age. Most of the information is contained in the first principal component, but the second component, which explains about 10% of the