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Background: The shea tree is a well-known carbon sink in Africa that requires a sustainable conservation of its gene pool. However, the genetic structure of its population is not well studied, especially in Côte d’Ivoire. In this study, 333 superior shea tree genotypes conserved in situ in Côte d’Ivoire were collected and genotyped with the aim of investigating its genetic diversity and population structure to facilitate suitable conservation and support future breeding efforts to adapt to climate change effects. Results: A total of 7,559 filtered high-quality single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) were identified using the genotyping by sequencing technology. The gene diversity (HE) ranged between 0.1 to 0.5 with an average of 0.26, while the polymorphism information content (PIC) value ranged between 0.1 to 0.5 with an average of 0.24, indicating a moderate genetic diversity among the studied genotypes. The population structure model classified the 333 genotypes into three genetic groups (GP1, GP2, and GP3). GP1 contained shea trees that mainly originated from the Poro, Tchologo, and Hambol districts, while GP2 and GP3 contained shea trees collected from the Bagoué district. Analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA) identified 55% variance within populations and 45% variance within individuals, indicating a very low genetic differentiation (or very high gene exchange) between these three groups (FST = 0.004, gene flow Nm = 59.02). Morphologically, GP1 displayed spreading tree growth habit, oval nut shape, higher mean nut weight (10.62 g), wide leaf (limb width = 4.63 cm), and small trunk size (trunk circumference = 133.4 cm). Meanwhile, GP2 and GP3 showed similar morphological characteristics: erect and spreading tree growth habit, ovoid nut shape, lower mean nut weight (GP2: 8.89 g; GP3: 8.36 g), thin leaf (limb width = 4.45 cm), and large trunk size (GP2: 160.5 cm, GP3: 149.1 cm). A core set of 100 superior shea trees, representing 30% of the original population size and including individuals from all four study districts, was proposed using the “maximum length sub-tree function” in DARwin v. 6.0.21. Conclusion: These findings provide new knowledge of the genetic diversity and population structure of Ivorian shea tree genetic resources for the design of effective collection and conservation strategies for the efficient use of inbreeding. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Background The shea tree is a well-known carbon sink in Africa that requires a sustainable conservation of its gene pool. However, the genetic structure of its population is not well studied, especially in Côte d’Ivoire. In this study, 333 superior shea tree genotypes conserved in situ in Côte d’Ivoire were collected and genotyped with the aim of investigating its genetic diversity and population structure to facilitate suitable conservation and support future breeding efforts to adapt to climate change effects. Results A total of 7,559 filtered high-quality single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) were identified using the genotyping by sequencing technology. The gene diversity (HE) ranged between 0.1 to 0.5 with an average of 0.26, while the polymorphism information content (PIC) value ranged between 0.1 to 0.5 with an average of 0.24, indicating a moderate genetic diversity among the studied genotypes. The population structure model classified the 333 genotypes into three genetic groups (GP1, GP2, and GP3). GP1 contained shea trees that mainly originated from the Poro, Tchologo, and Hambol districts, while GP2 and GP3 contained shea trees collected from the Bagoué district. Analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA) identified 55% variance within populations and 45% variance within individuals, indicating a very low genetic differentiation (or very high gene exchange) between these three groups (F ST = 0.004, gene flow Nm = 59.02). Morphologically, GP1 displayed spreading tree growth habit, oval nut shape, higher mean nut weight (10.62 g), wide leaf (limb width = 4.63 cm), and small trunk size (trunk circumference = 133.4 cm). Meanwhile, GP2 and GP3 showed similar morphological characteristics: erect and spreading tree growth habit, ovoid nut shape, lower mean nut weight (GP2: 8.89 g; GP3: 8.36 g), thin leaf (limb width = 4.45 cm), and large trunk size ( GP2: 160.5 cm, GP3: 149.1 cm). A core set of 100 superior shea trees, representing 30% of the original population size and including individuals from all four study districts, was proposed using the “maximum length sub-tree function” in DARwin v. 6.0.21. Conclusion These findings provide new knowledge of the genetic diversity and population structure of Ivorian shea tree genetic resources for the design of effective collection and conservation strategies for the efficient use of inbreeding.

The shea tree (Vitellaria paradoxa C.F. Gaertn.) is an important tree species in agroforestry systems in West Africa and shea nuts constitute a fundamental resource for rural livelihoods in this area. This study investigated the sustainability and interactions in agroforestry systems of shea trees around the village Nakpalli in Northern Ghana. The focus of the study was the population structures and densities of shea trees on different land types, below-canopy microclimate and co-cultivation of yams (Dioscorea rotundata (Poir.) J. Miége) under shea tree canopies, and water stress of the trees in the driest season. Shea tree populations are overall well-conserved in this area, but Weibull-distributions of the tree populations and quantification of seedlings showed a lower tree density in both cultivated and fallowed lands, as compared to undisturbed bushlands. Although farmers may deliberately manage the density of larger trees, the low densities of seedlings and saplings indicate that intensified management practices, including shortened fallow periods and intentional clearing of land by fire before sowing, might negatively affect the long-term regeneration of the shea trees. Co-cultivation of yams below shea tree canopies allowed production of 11.5 t/ha as compared to 20.8 t/ha at open field conditions. The lower yields may have been caused by an almost 74% reduction of photosynthetically active radiation below canopies, relative to outside the canopies. Shea trees in the fields, fallows and bushlands had close-to-zero predawn leaf water potentials, indicating low water stress, even in the middle of the dry season. Thus, shea trees are both well-adapted and highly valued in this area, which underlines the importance of conserving this indigenous tree species in the agroforestry systems of northern Ghana. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Vitellaria species is one of Africa's most important fruit crops with enormous human benefiting nutrients including amino acids. This study characterised Vitellaria paradoxa shea nut pulp from 5 regional zones of Ghana based on its acidity, pH and among the few for its qualitative and quantitative amino acids profile. Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC) techniques, using cellulose TLC plates were used to profile and quantify the amino acids. Fifteen essential amino acids were detected in the Vitellaria paradoxa shea nut pulp. Alanine, arginine, glutamic acid, glutamine and histidine were common in the Vitellaria paradoxa shea nut pulp. The most concentrated (41.02 g/100 g) of the 7 essential amino acids in the shea nut pulp was arginine and the least was glycine, 2.12 g/100 g. All seven 7 essential amino acids, except leucine and valine, were significantly different (P < 0.05) across the 5 shea regional zones of Ghana. The most acidic pulp, with 18.63% acidity, was from the Upper West Region. The quality and quantitative of amino acids in Vitellaria paradoxa shea nut pulp differed significantly from one region to the other. The shea nut pulp is a good source of essential amino acids and can be used fruit juice production and provide the required N for an effective fermentation to proceed. This has remarkable economic implication and significant environmental effects. Some health benefits of eating shea nut fruits consequential of its nutritional effects due to its amino acids composition have been noted to include its ability to help improve mood, boost exercise performance, prevent muscle loss and promote weight loss. Moreover, the amino acids profile of shea nut pulp may provide researchers with useful applications of the Vitellaria paradoxa shea nut pulp in the various industries.

Plants have been known to serve as source of food, income and in the maintenance of health, with their phytochemicals responsible for the biological properties of plants. All parts of shea tree (Vitellaria paradoxa) are consumed by human and livestock as medicine. The variations in the morphology and chemistry of shea tree and its product have been attributed to the various factors including their geographical sources among others. The phytochemical study of methanol extracts of the stem and leaf of shea tree collected from three locations were determined and compared. Qualitative phytochemical analysis indicated the presence of carbohydrates, cardiac glycosides, tannins, saponins, steroids, flavonoids, alkaloids and triterpenes. Alkaloidal contents in the leaf extracts ranged from 8.96 ± 0.05 to 16.96 ± 0.48 while the content in the stem extracts is 5.38 ± 0.04 to 14.93 ± 0.02. The phenol contents were higher in both extracts ranging from 43.05 ± 0.04 to 142.96 ± 0.07 and 85.05 ± 0.04 to 148.51 ± 0.07 in the leaf and stem extracts, respectively. Saponin contents in the leaf range from 3.56 ± 0.01 to 19.46 ± 0.01 in the leaf extracts and 9.93 ± 0.01 to 16.62 ± 0.01 in the stem extracts. Compounds such as myricetin, kaempferol-3-glucuronide, dihydroisorhamnetin, vanillic acid, 5,7-dihydroxy2-(4-hydroxy-3)methoxy)-3-{(3,4,5-trihydroxy-6 (hydroxymethyl)-oxan-2-yl)oxy}-4H-chromen4-one, 1H-indole-3-acetronitrille, 3,5-trihydroxy-10 methylacridone, syringin, gallic acid, anthranilic acid and quassin were identified in the liquid chromatography-mass spectroscopies (LC-MS) of the methanolic stem and leaf extracts of shea tree. The results of the phytochemical investigation indicate variation in the chemical composition of the plant across the study area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The housing sector today uses elaborate materials such as cement, iron, sand, often prohibitively expensive and whose production generates a strong environmental impact (scarcity of resources, transport, greenhouse gas greenhouse, etc.). In order to meet the challenges of sustainable development, earth construction is experiencing a resurgence of interest these days. Despite its many advantages, raw earth material has drawbacks, in particular its low mechanical resistance and its loss of geometric characteristics in the face of water, which slow down its development. As part of this study, the mechanical characteristics and durability of raw earth were improved by using residual water from the processing of Parkia Biglobosa (nere) and Vitellaria Paradoxa (shea) nuts in order to optimize its use for the construction of modern buildings. To this end, the decoctions resulting from the artisanal transformation of the nut of the Parkia Biglobosa into African mustard and of the Vitellaria Paradoxa into shea butter were added to the raw earth according to volume proportions of 25%, 50%, 75% and 100% of the aqueous solution to obtain the projected composites. Thus, mechanical characterization and durability tests were carried out on the composites obtained. The results revealed that the decoctions of Vitellaria Paradoxa and Parkia Biglobosa improve the compressive strength of the material by up to 90% and 260%, respectively. Furthermore, these decoctions improved the resistance to water penetration of the 100% additive composite by 1.5 times for Vitellaria Paradoxa and 5 times for Parkia Biglobosa. This study shows that it is possible to use decoctions as raw earth stabilizers to build modern, ecological buildings at lower energy costs. However, more in-depth studies on surface wettability and long-term durability are planned to better characterize the geomaterial. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: In this study, the changes in serum biochemical parameters in broiler chickens pre-ad¬ministered with methanol extracts of Ganoderma lucidum, Vernonia amygdalina leaves, and Vitellaria paradoxa stem bark and challenged with Eimeria tenella were assessed. Materials and Methods: One hundred 1-day-old Abor acre broiler chicks were randomly divided into 10 groups as follows: A1, A2, B1, B2, C1, C2, D1, D2, E, and F. From 14 to 20 days of age (doa), extracts of G. lucidum were administered to groups A1 and A2; V. amygdalina to B1 and B2; V. paradoxa to C1 and C2; Amprolium to D1 and D2; and E was the positive control, while F was the negative control. At 21 doa, each bird in groups A2, B2, C2, D2, and E were challenged orally with E. tenella sporulated oocysts. Blood was collected at 14, 21, and 28 doa into labelled plain tubes and analyzed for biochemical parameters. Results: The outcomes revealed no significant differences (p > 0.05) in the biochemical param¬eters in all groups of broiler chickens at 14 and 21 doa. At 28 doa, there were significantly (p < 0.05) decreased superoxide dismutase (SOD) and increased catalase (CAT) activities in challenged groups than in unchallenged groups. Among the challenged groups, there was a non-significantly (p > 0.05) lower SOD activity, higher CAT, glutathione peroxidase activities, and malondialdehyde level in group E than in groups A2, B2, C2, and D2. Conclusion: The pre-treatment of E. tenella-challenged broiler chickens with the methanol extracts of G. lucidum, V. amygdalina leaf, and V. paradoxa stem bark significantly ameliorated changes in SOD and CAT activities. [Vet. Res. Notes 2023; 3(10.000): 79-85]

Abstract Background Vitellaria paradoxa is used in traditional medicine for the treatment of various diseases in tropical countries; however, nothing is known about its anti-trypanosomal activity. Human African trypanosomiasis is a neglected tropical disease of Sub-Saharan Africa’s poorest rural regions, and the efficacy of its treatment remains a challenge. This study investigates the as-yet-unknown trypanocidal activity of this plant. Methods V. paradoxa, commonly known as shea tree, was selected for study based on an ethnobotanical investigation. Ultrasonicated extracts from bark and seeds were successively treated with ethyl acetate and water. Column chromatography, NMR spectroscopy and mass spectrometry were used to identify isolated compounds. Purified trypanosomes (Trypanosoma brucei brucei) were incubated with serial dilutions of the extracts and isolated compounds at 37 °C in 5% CO2 for 24 h. Parasite viability was evaluated under a microscope. Results The ethyl acetate extracts of the bark showed the higher in vitro trypanocidal activity against T. brucei brucei with median inhibitory concentration (IC50) of 3.25 µg/mL. However, the triterpene 1α,2β,3β,19α-tretrahydroxyurs-12-en-28-oic acid and the pentadecanoic acid isolated from the ethyl acetate extract of the seeds showed in vitro trypanocidal activity with IC50 of 11.30 and 70.1 µM, respectively. Conclusion The results obtained contribute to the validation of the traditional medicinal use of V. paradoxa. Our results encourage further investigations of this plant, mainly with respect to its in vivo efficacy and toxicity.

Background: Vitellaria paradoxa is used in traditional medicine for the treatment of various diseases in tropical countries; however, nothing is known about its anti-trypanosomal activity. Human African trypanosomiasis is a neglected tropical disease of Sub-Saharan Africa's poorest rural regions, and the efficacy of its treatment remains a challenge. This study investigates the as-yet-unknown trypanocidal activity of this plant. Methods: V. paradoxa, commonly known as shea tree, was selected for study based on an ethnobotanical investigation. Ultrasonicated extracts from bark and seeds were successively treated with ethyl acetate and water. Column chromatography, NMR spectroscopy and mass spectrometry were used to identify isolated compounds. Purified trypanosomes (Trypanosoma brucei brucei) were incubated with serial dilutions of the extracts and isolated compounds at 37 °C in 5% CO2 for 24 h. Parasite viability was evaluated under a microscope. Results: The ethyl acetate extracts of the bark showed the higher in vitro trypanocidal activity against T. brucei brucei with median inhibitory concentration (IC50) of 3.25 µg/mL. However, the triterpene 1α,2β,3β,19α-tretrahydroxyurs-12-en-28-oic acid and the pentadecanoic acid isolated from the ethyl acetate extract of the seeds showed in vitro trypanocidal activity with IC50 of 11.30 and 70.1 µM, respectively. Conclusion: The results obtained contribute to the validation of the traditional medicinal use of V. paradoxa. Our results encourage further investigations of this plant, mainly with respect to its in vivo efficacy and toxicity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Shea butter marketing is one of the options for sustainable livelihood business and employment creation in Nigeria. However, shea butter marketing has not been fully considered as profitable enterprise with investment potential in the country. Hence, this study was carried out to analyse marketing of Shea butter in Ibarapa Central Local Government Area of Oyo State, Nigeria using standard methods with of well-structured to select 60 respondents. The result of budgeting analysis revealed that the rate of return on investment indicated a positive average of 0.64. Benefit cost ratio analysis gave a value of 1.64 which suggested that the business is lucrative and profitable. Lack of capital, high cost of transportation and lack of storage facilities were identified as a major constraint in Shea butter marketing. The study recommends provision of credit facilities at low interest rate, appropriate government policies to promote export and adequate transport facilities for easy movement of Shea butter from producing areas to urban centres. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A defining component of agroforestry parklands across Sahelo-Sudanian Africa (SSA), the shea tree (Vitellaria paradoxa) is central to sustaining local livelihoods and the farming environments of rural communities. Despite its economic and cultural value, however, not to mention the ecological roles it plays as a dominant parkland species, shea remains semi-domesticated with virtually no history of systematic genetic improvement. In truth, shea's extended juvenile period makes traditional breeding approaches untenable; but the opportunity for genome-assisted breeding is immense, provided the foundational resources are available. Here we report the development and public release of such resources. Using the FALCON-Phase workflow, 162.6 Gb of long-read PacBio sequence data were assembled into a 658.7 Mbp, chromosome-scale reference genome annotated with 38,505 coding genes. Whole genome duplication (WGD) analysis based on this gene space revealed clear signatures of two ancient WGD events in shea's evolutionary past, one prior to the Astrid-Rosid divergence (116-126 Mya) and the other at the root of the order Ericales (65-90 Mya). In a first genome-wide look at the suite of fatty acid (FA) biosynthesis genes that likely govern stearin content, the primary determinant of shea butter quality, relatively high copy numbers of six key enzymes were found (KASI, KASIII, FATB, FAD2, FAD3, and FAX2), some likely originating in shea's more recent WGD event. To help translate these findings into practical tools for characterization, selection, and genome-wide association studies (GWAS), resequencing data from a shea diversity panel was used to develop a database of more than 3.5 million functionally annotated, physically anchored SNPs. Two smaller, more curated sets of suggested SNPs, one for GWAS (104,211 SNPs) and the other targeting FA biosynthesis genes (90 SNPs), are also presented. With these resources, the hope is to support national programs across the shea belt in the strategic, genome-enabled conservation and long-term improvement of the shea tree for SSA.

Shea butter marketing is one of the options for sustainable livelihood business and employment creation in Nigeria. However, shea butter marketing has not been fully considered as profitable enterprise with investment potential in the country. Hence, this study was carried out to analyse marketing of Shea butter in Ibarapa Central Local Government Area of Oyo State, Nigeria using standard methods with of well-structured to select 60 respondents. The result of budgeting analysis revealed that the rate of return on investment indicated a positive average of 0.64. Benefit cost ratio analysis gave a value of 1.64 which suggested that the business is lucrative and profitable. Lack of capital, high cost of transportation and lack of storage facilities were identified as a major constraint in Shea butter marketing. The study recommends provision of credit facilities at low interest rate, appropriate government policies to promote export and adequate transport facilities for easy movement of Shea butter from producing areas to urban centres.

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Agroforestry parklands are an age-old traditional land use practice that integrates crop cultivation under scattered woody plants. This practice is widespread in West African savannas providing many essential ecological and socio-economic benefits to people such as food, fuelwood, and medicine. Currently, parklands are decreasing due to changes in agriculture and land use practices, often associated with human population growth. Understanding spatial patterns as well as identifying reliable methods of sampling to estimate the density of woody plants is necessary for the sustainable management of parklands. In this study, a comparative analysis of select plotless sampling methods was performed using field and simulated datasets with known spatial patterns from field assessments. Results of spatial indices tests indicated that woody plants in parklands exhibited two spatial patterns: i.e., aggregate and random, the latter being the dominant pattern observed in field datasets. Based on relative measure statistics (i.e., RRMSE and RBIAS), the ordered distance (OD), point-centered quarter (PCQ), and closest individual (CI) methods performed well when woody plants were located in a random pattern while the variable area transect (VAT) method was better at estimating density under patterns of spatial aggregation. Overall, OD and VAT methods are recommended for density estimation in parklands because they are relatively more accurate, less biased, and practical and computations are easy to undertake. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The shea tree is among the socio‐economically and environmentally most important plants in the Sudano‐Sahelian region of Africa. Shea butter is internationally valued for use in pharmaceutical, cosmetic and confectionary industries. Scaling and describing phenological growth stages is of great importance in crops management. However, such phenological scale is still lacking for shea tree. To fill this gap, we documented the different growth stages of shea tree by referencing to the Biologische Bundesantalt, Bundessortenamt und Chemische Industrie (BBCH) scale. Eight of the ten principal growth stages (0–9) and 43 secondary growth stages (0–9) were described in shea tree. Among the eight principal stages, four were related to reproductive phenophases: inflorescence emergence stage (5), flowering stage (6), fruit development stage (7), and fruit maturity stage (8). The remaining four principal stages concerned vegetative phenophases and contained: bud development stage (0), leaf development stage (1), shoot development stage (3), and senescence stage (9). Observations of shea tree phenophases depicted asynchronous growth patterns with overlapping secondary growth stages of different principal stages within an individual tree canopy at the same time. The proposed phenological growth scale specific to shea tree but compatible with other crops is a valuable contribution for the implementation of crops management protocols and the standardisation of research between different laboratories. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Shea tree (Vitellaria paradoxa) is an essential tree crop with great potential economic value mainly because of its seed oil (shea butter) which is of high demand for manufacturing assorted products in food, cosmetic, and rubber industries. Propagation of this species is, however, hindered by relative unavailability of seed (nuts), erratic seed germination, a long vegetative phase, and latex exudation from cuttings. Thus, another method of propagation through in vitro culture is recommended for rapid multiplication of shea genotypes for large-scale cultivation. In the present study, the effects of two cytokinins, namely, 6-benzylaminopurine (BAP) and kinetin (KIN), and one auxin, namely 1-naphthaleneacetic acid (NAA), on shoot and/or root induction in vitro were asses sed at various combinations/concentrations. The inclusion of these growth regulators in the culture medium significantly improved (P

Combining antibiotics with resistance reversing agents is a key strategy to overcome bacterial resistance. Upon screening antimicrobial activities of plants used in traditional medicine, we found that a leaf dichloromethane extract from the shea butter tree (Vitellaria paradoxa) had antimicrobial activity against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) with further evidence of synergy when combined with β-lactams. Using HPLC-MS, we identified ursolic (UA) and oleanolic acids (OA) in leaves and twigs of this species, and quantified them by HPLC-UV as the major constituents in leaf extracts (21% and 6% respectively). Both pure triterpenic acids showed antimicrobial activity against reference and clinical strains of MRSA, with MICs ranging from 8-16 mg/L for UA to 32-128 mg/L for OA. They were highly synergistic with β-lactams (ampicillin and oxacillin) at subMIC concentrations. Reversion of MRSA phenotype was attributed to their capacity to delocalize PBP2 from the septal division site, as observed by fluorescence microscopy, and to disturb thereby peptidoglycan synthesis. Moreover, both compounds also inhibited β-lactamases activity of living bacteria (as assessed by inhibition of nitrocefin hydrolysis), but not in bacterial lysates, suggesting an indirect mechanism for this inhibition. In a murine model of subcutaneous MRSA infection, local administration of UA was synergistic with nafcillin to reduce lesion size and inflammatory cytokine (IL-1β) production. Thus, these data highlight the potential interest of triterpenic acids as resistance reversing agents in combination with β-lactams against MRSA.

Shea tree (Vitellaria paradoxa subsp. nilotica) is an important commercial tree for domestic oil and industrial products of cosmetics, chocolate and other confectionaries traded grown worldwide. We studied seed morphometric characteristics and crude oil content of Shea nuts in Uganda. Five populations, comprising of 16 ethnovarieties, were selected from Eastern, Northern and West Nile Sub-regions of Uganda, based on their attributes as judged by the farmers. Fresh kernel weight ranged from 2 to 18.85 mg per seed. Kernel weight increased with Shea fruit weight (y = 0.1499x + 6.1887, R² = 0.306). Moyo district had the highest oil content (54.37 ± 0.32%); while Amuru district had the lowest oil content (50.5 ± 1.32%). Oil content decreased with increasing kernel size (y = -0.4541x + 57.303, R² = 0.2116) and dry matter content (y = 0.635x - 9.863, R²= 0.011); and varied between ethnovarieties and Shea tree populations, P = 0.003 and P< 0.001, respectively. Tinny seeded (45.7 - 65.49%), Round fruited (45.41 - 65.91%), Dwarf tree (45.19 - 64.19%), Elliptical fruited (45.32 - 64.19%) and Soft pulped (42.16 - 69.77%) ethnovarieties had the highest oil content. Narrow sense heritability (h2) for oil yield was 1.72; while response to selection (R) was 16.48 with genetic gain (Gs) of 2.21%, given 10% top selection intensity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Shea trees (Vitellaria paradoxa) are common in African countries such as Nigeria, Ghana, Uganda, Sudan, and others. When fully ripe, the Shea tree's green fruit turns yellow. The tree is well-known and valued for its versatility. Its entire composition is useful in the food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic industries. Among its applications is the production of butter from the nuts, while the rest of the fruit is left to rot or discarded. This study focuses on using other parts of the fruit to create a new product, reduce waste, and expand the Shea value chain. Three formulations of Shea fruit juice were created. The juice were evaluated for nutritional, physicochemical, and mineral compositions. The nutritional composition revealed a high moisture content that ranged from 84.39 to 93.01%, high carbohydrate and caloric values, ranging from 5.84 to 8.96% and 33.51 to 67.31%, respectively. It also had a high concentration of vitamin C (16.45 - 38.99 percent). The mineral composition was observed to increase as the Shea pulp percentage increased. Magnesium was observed to be higher in sample C (36.71±0.24) while sample A recorded a lower magnesium content (18.04±0.06). Calcium was also found to be present in high concentrations (30.07 - 50.64 %). The juice's potassium content ranged from 58.6 - 50.54% in sample C to 24.6 - 60.16% in sample A. The physicochemical analysis revealed a close range of p H values (5.37 - 6.06 %) between the samples and the control, making the juice less susceptible to spoilage. Overall, the results presented a high-quality juice that could compete favorably in the market with other fruit juices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Background The cost involved in feeding poultry is very high especially in most developing countries. To this end, the effectiveness of the fruit pulp of Vitellaria paradoxa (shea), an agro-industrial by-product that is discarded in the processing of the nut for shea butter extraction was investigated on twelve poultry birds assigned to three groups A, B and C (control). Dried samples of the fruit pulp were analysed for their nutrients. Results Proximate analysis of the shea fruit pulp revealed a carbohydrate content of 41.14%, crude fibre 26.62%, crude protein 10.34%, ash 9.23%, crude fat 3.55% and 9.13% for moisture. It also contained essential minerals such as Ca (587 mg /100 g dw), Na (138.30 mg /100 g dw), Mg (1358 mg /100 g dw), K (771.5 mg /100 g dw), Fe (29.88 mg/100 g dw), Zn (40.31 mg/100 g dw) and Cu (8.11 mg/100 g dw). Heavy metals such as Cd, Mn, Pb and Cr were below detectable limits. Measured parameters were live body weights and some selected blood chemistry tests. Broilers in groups A and B fed on shea fruit pulp formulated with maize meal showed a significant growth performance in weight (p 0.05) in the control group, fed on maize meal only. Conclusion The fruit pulp of Vitellaria paradoxa could be considered a good source of macro and micronutrients and could be used as a supplement in poultry feed.

Shea trees (Vitellaria paradoxa) are common in African countries such as Nigeria, Ghana, Uganda, Sudan, and others. When fully ripe, the Shea tree's green fruit turns yellow. The tree is well-known and valued for its versatility. Its entire composition is useful in the food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic industries. Among its applications is the production of butter from the nuts, while the rest of the fruit is left to rot or discarded. This study focuses on using other parts of the fruit to create a new product, reduce waste, and expand the Shea value chain. Three formulations of Shea fruit juice were created. The juice were evaluated for nutritional, physicochemical, and mineral compositions. The nutritional composition revealed a high moisture content that ranged from 84.39 to 93.01%, high carbohydrate and caloric values, ranging from 5.84 to 8.96% and 33.51 to 67.31%, respectively. It also had a high concentration of vitamin C (16.45 - 38.99 percent). The mineral composition was observed to increase as the Shea pulp percentage increased. Magnesium was observed to be higher in sample C (36.71±0.24) while sample A recorded a lower magnesium content (18.04±0.06). Calcium was also found to be present in high concentrations (30.07 - 50.64 %). The juice's potassium content ranged from 58.6 - 50.54% in sample C to 24.6 - 60.16% in sample A. The physicochemical analysis revealed a close range of p H values (5.37 - 6.06 %) between the samples and the control, making the juice less susceptible to spoilage. Overall, the results presented a high-quality juice that could compete favorably in the market with other fruit juices.

Vitellaria paradoxa (shea) has interannual variability in fruit yield patterns, which results in unpredictable export volumes. Research on factors accounting for this inconsistency is needed to manage tree stands for optimum yield, but existing studies on the topic have shown conflicting results. In order to synthesize research approaches used in examining determinants of shea reproductive success, and to identify research gaps, we reviewed the existing literature on the subject available in Scopus and Google Scholar from 2000 to 2021. Out of 119 primary research articles identified in our literature search, 40 articles met our predefined inclusion criteria. Geographically, most studies (75%) were conducted in West Africa, and six times as many studies used quantitative approaches compared with either qualitative or mixed method approaches. Fruiting emerged as the most studied aspect of shea reproductive biology (73% of studies), whereas less is known on floral biology and pollination. All studies that assessed the effect of agro-ecology, seasonality, pollination, and altitude reported significant effect of these factors on fruit yield. However, there were divergent outcomes on land use/management, dendrometry and parkland tree diversity on fruit yield. The majority of the studies examined single factor effects on yield for one flowering/fruiting season, which is a major weakness of the existing research. We recommended several strategies to improve the reliability of future studies on determinants of shea reproductive success, such as designing multi-factorial experiments to cater for extraneous variables, profiling land use history of the shea parkland and conducting experiments for multiple seasons.

The aim of the present study was to investigate the polyphenolic profile and the anti-inflammatory and anti-nociceptive activities of four traditionally used medicinal plants from Burkina Faso: Parkia biglobosa, Detarium microcarpum, Vitellaria paradoxa and Sclerocarya birrea. The analysis of the main phenolic compounds was performed by the HPLC-UV-MS method. The anti-inflammatory effect of the aqueous bark extracts was investigated by the λ-carrageenan-induced rat paw edema test. The anti-nociceptive activity was evaluated by the Randall–Selitto test under inflammatory conditions. Seven phenolic acids (gallic, protocatechuic, gentisic, vanillic, p-coumaric, ferulic, and syringic acids), and three flavonoids (catechin, epicatechin, and quercitrin) were identified in the plant samples. High contents of gallic acid were determined in the D. microcarpum, P. biglobosa and S. birrea extracts (190–300 mg/100 g), and V. paradoxa extract was the richest in epicatechin (173.86 mg/100 g). The λ-carrageenan-induced inflammation was significantly reduced (p < 0.001) by the P. biglobosa and D. microcarpum extracts (400 mg/kg p.o.). Under the inflammatory conditions, a significant anti-nociceptive activity (p < 0.001) was obtained after 2–3 h from the induction of inflammation. The effects of the tested extracts could be related to the presence of polyphenols and could be useful in the management of certain inflammatory diseases. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Tapinanthus globiferus has evolved to mimic the foliage of Vitellaria paradoxa as a host tree. It is used locally for the treatment of various diseases such as diabetes, stroke, headaches, insomnia, migraines, pains and schizophrenia. Though, patients with psychosis often use natural medicines and yet it is unclear whether these are safe and effective. This study aimed to evaluate the antipsychotic activity of ethanol extract of Tapinanthus globiferus grown on Vitellaria paradoxa in mice. Phytochemical screening and acute toxicity studies were carried out using standard methods. The antipsychotic activity of the extract was evaluated using haloperidolinduced catalepsy, apomorphine-induced climbing behaviour and tail suspension test in mice. The studies revealed that, the extract contained valuable biological active compounds with LD50 of 1,300 mg/kg i.p. which are slightly toxic. Tapinanthus globiferus offered significant effect in duration of haloperidol-induced catalepsy at 350 mg/kg, apomorphine-induced climbing behaviour at 87.5 and 175 mg/kg and no effect in duration of immobility in tail suspension in mice at all doses compared to control. The observed effect of the extract on haloperidol-induced catalepsy and significant reduction in climbing behaviour induced by apomorphine showed that the extract may have effect on dopamine receptors and antipsychotic agents antagonise dopamine D2-receptors. The investigation revealed that extract of T. globiferus contained active constituents which have antipsychotic effect in mice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Indigenous therapies, or traditional medicines (TMs), constitute a highly accessible and continuously growing health system in many parts of the world, including Sub‐Saharan Africa (SSA). Shea butter, a fat produced from the kernels of the shea tree, has historically been used as an indigenous therapy for dermatologic ailments in SSA. Characterizing traditional therapeutic applications for shea butter is important to inform the continued development of TM in SSA. We conducted a literature review aimed at identifying all available publications on the use of shea butter to treat dermatoses within SSA and evaluating patterns of use. We found 24 dermatologic uses across 30 references. The most common study design was descriptive cross‐sectional analysis (46.7%), often relying on the use of in‐depth interviews, focus groups, and surveys. Eight SSA countries were represented and there were disparities in availability of information across SSA with the eastern and southern regions less likely to be represented. The most frequently investigated conditions were scabies, wound healing, and umbilical cord care. Shea butter was most commonly used in combination with other ingredients to produce a medical treatment with the most frequent adjuvant being Elaeis guineensis, African oil palm. Broad use of TM to treat varied skin diseases throughout SSA warrants increased investigations into this field in order to further develop the capacity of TM as a source of healthcare. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The inadvertent exposure to arsenic has been associated with diverse diseases such as cancers. Vitellaria paradoxa is a medicinal plant with antidiabetic and antiproliferative properties. Here, we assessed the ameliorative role of Ethanol Leaf extract of Vitellaria paradoxa (ELVp) in Sodium Arsenite (SA) - induced toxicity in rats after oral treatment for two weeks as follows: Group 1 (Control, distilled water), Group 2 (Vitamin E, 100 mg/kg), Groups 3 and 4 (ELVp, 100 & 200 mg/kg respectively), Group 5 (SA, 2.5 mg/kg), Group 6 (SA + Vit E) and Group 7 (SA + ELVp (100 mg/kg) and Group 8 (SA + ELVp (200 mg/kg). The results indicated that SA significantly increased liver and kidney function markers and elevated platelet, white blood cell (WBC) count and malondialdehyde levels in rats. Additionally, SA decreased Red Blood Cell (RBC), Hemoglobin (HGB) and Hematocrit (HCT) levels in rats (p < 0.05). Sodium arsenite caused mild expression of BCL-2 protein> NF-Kb = p53 in the kidney of rats. However, ELVp ameliorated SA-induced toxicity in the liver and kidney of rats with respect to these markers. Overall, ELVp has hepatoprotective, nephroprotective and apoptotic properties against sodium arsenite-induced toxicity.

Shea tree (Vitellaria paradoxa) is an essential tree crop with great potential economic value mainly because of its seed oil (shea butter) which is of high demand for manufacturing assorted products in food, cosmetic, and rubber industries. Propagation of this species is, however, hindered by relative unavailability of seed (nuts), erratic seed germination, a long vegetative phase, and latex exudation from cuttings. Thus, another method of propagation through in vitro culture is recommended for rapid multiplication of shea genotypes for large-scale cultivation. In the present study, the effects of two cytokinins, namely, 6-benzylaminopurine (BAP) and kinetin (KIN), and one auxin, namely 1-naphthaleneacetic acid (NAA), on shoot and/or root induction in vitro were assessed at various combinations/concentrations. The inclusion of these growth regulators in the culture medium significantly improved (P < 0.05) shoot/root regeneration over the controls. The highest shoot regeneration percentage (100%) was obtained on Murashige and Skoog (MS) basal medium supplemented with 2 mg.dm-3 KIN + + 0.5 mg.dm-3 NAA or 1.5 mg @dm!3 KIN within 7/8 days of inoculation. This medium (2 mg.dm-3 KIN + + 0.5 mg.dm-3 NAA) showed the highest mean shoot length of 3.24 cm. Compared to KIN, BAP was more effective in inducing vigorous shoot growth. However, rooting was induced only on MS medium modified with 1 mg.dm-3 BAP + 0.5 mg.dm-3 NAA. These findings can serve as baseline information for in vitro, commercialscale propagation of shea tree. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sabri Sudirman, Chun-Kai Chen, Bing-Ting Long, Heng-Wei Chang, David Tsou, Zwe-Ling Kong Department of Food Science, National Taiwan Ocean University, Keelung City 20224, TaiwanCorrespondence: Zwe-Ling KongDepartment of Food Science, National Taiwan Ocean University, Keelung City 20224, TaiwanTel/Fax +886 2 24622192 Ext. 5130Email kongzl@mail.ntou.edu.twPurpose: To investigate the ameliorative effects of Vitellaria paradoxa (VP) nut extract for an anterior cruciate ligament transection with medial meniscectomy (ACLT+MMx)-induced osteoarthritis (OA) in high-fat diet (HFD)-induced obese rats.Methods: The rats were fed by HFD for 5 weeks before surgery-induced OA. Rats were treated orally with three different doses of VP nut extract (111.6, 223.2, and 446.4 mg/kg) for 8 weeks.Results: The VP nut triterpene-rich extract decreased the level of triglycerides and increased high-density lipoprotein-cholesterol. The level of nitric oxide, interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, and tumor necrosis factor-α decreased after treatment with VP nut triterpene-rich extract, especially in high-doses. The VP nut triterpene-rich extracts also alleviated swelling in the knee OA, weight-bearing difference, and suppressed cartilage degradation.Conclusion: The Vitellaria paradoxa nut triterpene-rich extract suppressed proinflammatory mediators and attenuated the cartilage degradation and pain in osteoarthritis with an obesity rat model. As such, Vitellaria paradoxa nut triterpene-rich extract can be used as an alternative for osteoarthritis treatment.Keywords: medial meniscectomy, obesity, osteoarthritis, triterpene, Vitellaria paradoxa

Abstract Background Vitellaria paradoxa (V. paradoxa) is a plant used in traditional medicine in the treatment of many diseases including diabetes mellitus. Although the different parts of this plant are used empirically as antidiabetic drug, no scientific work to our knowledge has yet been undertaken to evaluate its effects on blood glucose, and lipid and antioxidant parameters of diabetic animals. The objective of this study is therefore to evaluate the hypoglycaemic, hypolipidemic and antioxidant activities of the aqueous extract of V. paradoxa barks in diabetic rats. Methods Diabetes was induced by intraperitoneal injection of alloxan (120 mg/kg bw). Thirty male albino rats were divided into groups and orally treated for 14 days with distilled water, glibenclamide (2.5 mg/kg bw) and aqueous extract of V. paradoxa (125, 250 and 500 mg/kg bw). Glycaemia, insulin level, relative body weight, hepatic glycogen level, some liver enzymes, and lipid and antioxidant parameters were evaluated. Results The results showed that the extract caused a significant increase in relative body weight, insulin level, HDL-cholesterol, hepatic glycogen rate, and fructose-1,6-biphosphate and glucokinase activities. A significant decrease in glycaemia, glucose-6-phosphatase activity, total cholesterol, triglycerides and LDL-cholesterol were also observed after the administration of V. paradoxa. Glutathione level and the activities of catalase and superoxide dismutase increased significantly while the nitric oxide and malondialdehyde levels decreased significantly in the liver of animals treated with the extract of V. paradoxa. Conclusion These results justify the hypoglycaemic, hypolipidemic and antioxidant effects of aqueous extract of V. paradoxa barks, which can reduce the complications associated with diabetes.

Background: Over time, herbal plants and their various components have been major sources of therapeutic medicine for man. A comparative study was carried out to determine the phytochemical components and antibacterial activities of the different crude extracts of Euphorbia heterophylla and Vitellaria paradoxa roots on four enteric bacteria; Salmonella typhi, Shigella flexneri, Escherichia coli and Proteus vulgaris. Methodology: Root samples of E. heterophylla and V. paradoxa were collected, washed, air dried and processed to fine powder in the microbiology laboratory of Federal University of Technology, Minna, Nigeria. Crude extract of the root samples was done by the cold maceration technique using four solvents (chloroform, methanol, petroleum ether and water). Phytochemical analysis of the extracts was done using previously described technique, and in vitro antibacterial activities of different concentrations of the extracts (50-200 mg/ml) and a standard antibiotic (ciprofloxacin) were tested on four enteric bacteria (S. typhi, S. flexneri, E. coli, P. vulgaris) by the agar diffusion test. In vivo antibacterial activities of the two plants were also tested by daily oral administration of 2000 mg/kg bodyweight (for 7 days) of each extract on inbred mice infected through intraperitoneal inoculation of an infective dose of each of the four enteric bacteria. Data were computed as mean ± standard error and analysed by the Statistical Analysis System (SAS) version 9.4. Associations between variables were determined using analysis of variance (ANOVA), with p < 0.05 considered as significant value. Results: Phytochemical analysis of the crude extracts of both plants revealed the presence of cardiac glycosides, saponins, alkaloids, flavonoids, and tannins but V. paradoxa contain more carbohydrates and starch, and less phlobatannins, compared to E. heterophylla. In vitro assay showed dose-dependent antibacterial activity of the methanol, aqueous and chloroform (but not petroleum ether) extracts of the two plant roots. The in vitro antibacterial activities of the different extracts of V. paradoxica extracts were significantly higher (higher mean diameters of inhibition zones) than those of E. heterophylla (p<0.05), and methanol extracts gave the highest antibacterial effects. However, the root extract of E. heterophylla gave a higher antibacterial activity with the in vivo assay on inbred mice than V. paradoxa, and methanol extracts of the two plant extracts gave the highest in vivo activity, followed by aqueous extract and least activity was obtained with the chloroform extract. Conclusion: Crude extracts of E. heterophylla and V. paradoxa roots produce antibacterial activity against enteric Gram-negative bacteria pathogens involved in diarrhoea illnesses. Further researches should be directed towards isolation and characterization of the active compounds in the crude extracts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A defining component of agroforestry parklands across Sahelo-Sudanian Africa (SSA), the shea tree (Vitellaria paradoxa) is central to sustaining local livelihoods and the farming environments of rural communities. Despite its economic and cultural value, however, not to mention the ecological roles it plays as a dominant parkland species, shea remains semi-domesticated with virtually no history of systematic genetic improvement. In truth, shea’s extended juvenile period makes traditional breeding approaches untenable; but the opportunity for genome-assisted breeding is immense, provided the foundational resources are available. Here we report the development and public release of such resources. Using the FALCON-Phase workflow, 162.6 Gb of long-read PacBio sequence data were assembled into a 658.7 Mbp, chromosome-scale reference genome annotated with 38,505 coding genes. Whole genome duplication (WGD) analysis based on this gene space revealed clear signatures of two ancient WGD events in shea’s evolutionary past, one prior to the Astrid-Rosid divergence (116–126 Mya) and the other at the root of the order Ericales (65–90 Mya). In a first genome-wide look at the suite of fatty acid (FA) biosynthesis genes that likely govern stearin content, the primary determinant of shea butter quality, relatively high copy numbers of six key enzymes were found (KASI, KASIII, FATB, FAD2, FAD3, and FAX2), some likely originating in shea’s more recent WGD event. To help translate these findings into practical tools for characterization, selection, and genome-wide association studies (GWAS), resequencing data from a shea diversity panel was used to develop a database of more than 3.5 million functionally annotated, physically anchored SNPs. Two smaller, more curated sets of suggested SNPs, one for GWAS (104,211 SNPs) and the other targeting FA biosynthesis genes (90 SNPs), are also presented. With these resources, the hope is to support national programs across the shea belt in the strategic, genome-enabled conservation and long-term improvement of the shea tree for SSA.

Vitellaria paradoxa Gaertn. is a multipurpose medicinal plant of the family Sapotaceae, and it has been widely used usually in the clinical traditional medicine as remedy for a wide range of diseases for several decades. In addition, the plant has also found applications in confectionery, cosmetics and soaps, and pharmaceuticals both locally and internationally. V. paradoxa, which has been identified with >150 phytoconstituents, is rich in oleanane-type triterpene acids and glycosides, such as paradoxosides A-E, tieghemelin A, parkiosides A-C, bassic acid, as well as flavonoids such as quercetin and catechin-type compounds. The extracts and the active constituents of V. paradoxa have been investigated for various pharmacological activities, including but not limited to anticancer, melanogenesis-inhibitory, antibacterial, anti-diabetic, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-diarrhoeal, and antifungal activities. Additionally, V. paradoxa has also been utilized in nanoparticles (NPs) synthesis. These NPs among other things have shown significant antinociceptive and antiedematogenic activities as well as environmental friendly adsorptive properties for the removal of pollutants from pharmaceutical effluents. Overall, this review comprehensively examines the traditional uses, phytochemistry, pharmacology, toxicology, clinical studies, and nanoparticles synthesized from V. paradoxa and their applications.

Most of biochemical reactions in the body generates Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) which are involved in the pathogenesis of oxidative stress-related disorders like diabetes, nephrotoxicity, cancer, cardiovascular disorders, inflammation and neurological disorders. Antioxidants are used to protect the cells or tissues against potential attack by ROS. Most medicinal plants possess a rich source of antioxidants such as flavonoids, phenols, tannins, alkaloids among others. These phytochemicals are currently pursued as an alternative and complimentary drug. The study was carried out to determine Pharmacognostic, antioxidant and acute toxicity of Vitellaria paradoxa root and stem bark. The Vitellaria paradoxa was extracted with water and methanol, screened for their phytochemical properties and antioxidant effects. Chemo-microscopical studies revealed the presence of cellulose cell wall, lignin, calcium oxalate crystals, tannins, starch and mucilage while calcium carbonate was absent in the stem bark but present in the root. The average moisture contents were 7.30% and 6.80% in stem bark and root respectively. The water and ethanol/alcohol extractives were 24.0% and 20.0°% for stem while 25.50°% and 19.0°% for the root respectively. Alkaloid, flavonoids, saponins, tannins, steroids, triterpenes, carbohydrate and phenols were detected in both aqueous and methanol extracts while anthraquinones was absent in all the extracts. The DPPH radical scavenging ability of the extract showed the following trend Ascorbic acid > Stem bark extract> Root extract. Toxicity of the samples was expressed as LD50, it was found above 5000 mg/kg and did not cause mortality in all the tested rats. These results suggested that Vitellaria paradoxa root and stem bark have moderate antioxidant potentials. Further study is necessary for isolation and characterization of active antioxidant agents which can be used to treat various oxidative stress related diseases. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Backgroud: Vitellaria paradoxa is a plant belonging to the Sapotaceae family and used in traditional medicine in the treatment of diabetes mellitus. The aim of this work was to evaluate the hypoglycemic, antidyslipidemic and antioxidant effects of V. paradoxa on type 2 diabetic rats. Methods: To induce type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), animals were fed a high-fat diet for 4 weeks followed by an intraperitoneal injection of 35 mg/kg of streptozotocin. Diabetic rats were divided into groups and treated for 28 days with V. paradoxa extract (AEVP) at doses of 125, 250 and 500 mg/kg. Body weight, urine volume, food and water consumption were assessed at the start and end of treatment. The glucose tolerance test was performed on the last day of treatment. Blood samples were taken for the assay of biochemical parameters, organs (kidneys and liver) for markers of oxidative stress and pancreas for histological sections. Results: AEVP (250 and 500 mg/kg) improved the drop in body weight, polyphagia, polydipsia and polyuria in diabetic rats. AEVP significantly reduced the concentrations of glucose, total cholesterol, triacylglycerol, urea, creatinine, activities of transaminases, and increased the levels of high density lipoprotein cholesterol and serum insulin. AEVP resulted in a decrease in malondialdehyde levels and an increase in catalase and superoxide dismutase activities. An increase in the size and number of islets in the pancreas has also been observed after administration of the extract. Conclusion: AEVP has antidiabetic, antidyslipidemic and antioxidant properties, thus confirming its traditional use for the treatment of diabetes. These effects could be due to the presence of phytoconstituents, phenols and flavonoids presents in the plant extract.

The aim of the present study was to investigate the polyphenolic profile and the anti-inflammatory and anti-nociceptive activities of four traditionally used medicinal plants from Burkina Faso: Parkia biglobosa, Detarium microcarpum, Vitellaria paradoxa and Sclerocarya birrea. The analysis of the main phenolic compounds was performed by the HPLC-UV-MS method. The anti-inflammatory effect of the aqueous bark extracts was investigated by the λ-carrageenan-induced rat paw edema test. The anti-nociceptive activity was evaluated by the Randall–Selitto test under inflammatory conditions. Seven phenolic acids (gallic, protocatechuic, gentisic, vanillic, p-coumaric, ferulic, and syringic acids), and three flavonoids (catechin, epicatechin, and quercitrin) were identified in the plant samples. High contents of gallic acid were determined in the D. microcarpum, P. biglobosa and S. birrea extracts (190–300 mg/100 g), and V. paradoxa extract was the richest in epicatechin (173.86 mg/100 g). The λ-carrageenan-induced inflammation was significantly reduced (p < 0.001) by the P. biglobosa and D. microcarpum extracts (400 mg/kg p.o.). Under the inflammatory conditions, a significant anti-nociceptive activity (p < 0.001) was obtained after 2–3 h from the induction of inflammation. The effects of the tested extracts could be related to the presence of polyphenols and could be useful in the management of certain inflammatory diseases.

Trait diversity is crucial in undertaking the domestication of useful species such as Vitellaria paradoxa which makes a significant contribution to the rural household economy in Africa. This study aims to document the criteria farmers use to distinguish shea trees; how they vary according to age, education level and sociolinguistic group; and their perception of trees’ abundance and production. We surveyed 405 respondents across shea parklands in Benin using a semi-structured questionnaire. We used the Kruskal-Wallis test to evaluate the influence of sociodemographic attributes on relative criteria citation frequency and principal components analysis to characterize farmers’ perception on morphotypes’ abundance, fruits, and butter yields. The five most cited criteria were fruit size (55.5%), tree fertility (15.40%), bark colour (10.51%), timing of production (5.38%), and pulp taste (3.42%). The citation frequency of criteria varied significantly depending on the sociodemographic factors considered. Trees having small fruit (‘Yanki’) were reported to be widespread and high fruit/nuts and butter producers. Farmers perceived five important traits with variable importance depending on the sociocultural factors studied. This finding is a key step toward the development of a shea improvement program that could focus on the morphotype Yanki reported to potentially be a high fruit and butter producer.

Shea fruit (Vitellaria paradoxa C.F. Gaertn.) has a high potential for alleviation of hunger and poverty in Burkina Faso. The fruit pulp is an important source of food for rural communities, especially at times of food shortages. In addition, the commercial value of the shea tree enables local women to gather and sell the fruit to increase their incomes. However, stakeholders in the shea sector noted that pulp rot was a major constraint to their activity. Ripe fruit from six ethno-varieties were sampled every 2 weeks from trees in six agroforestry parks over two consecutive years (2017 and 2018). Shea fruits were then incubated in the laboratory until the emergence of adult fruit flies. Seven fruit fly species were identified, the most important of which was Ceratitis silvestrii Bezzi (54.75% of the individual fruit flies that emerged), followed by Bactrocera dorsalis Hendel (41.16%). The average rate of fruit damage differed significantly between ethno-varieties and collection dates, ranging from 2.08 to 16.23% in early shea fruits fruiting season and from 39 to 66.61% in the middle of the season, depending on the ethno-variety and the season. Ethno-varieties ripening in the mid shea fruits fruiting season suffered more fruit fly attacks than early and late ripening ethno-varieties. This study provided interesting information which will be used in the development of strategies for the control of these insect pests. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study was aimed at assessing the natural regeneration of Vitellaria paradoxa at seedling stage in order to accentuate its sustainable plantation establishment. Two land-use types (cultivated and fallow lands) and five crown shapes (round, spindle, spherical, umbrella and intermediate) were evaluated for their effects on early growth of Vitellaria seedlings. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and ANOVA at 5% level of significance. The results revealed that cultivated land had a higher mean value in height (19.29 cm), number of leaves (6.26) and leaf area (33.38 cm2). Land-use types and tree crown shape significantly influenced the level of carriage of the seeds by rodent pest animals with 2.6% seeds from the cultivated land while fallow land had 21.6%. For sustainable production of healthy seedlings, adequate land preparation and soil conditioning are very important for natural regeneration and early growth of the seedlings of V. paradoxa. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Tuberculosis (TB) is an infectious disease caused by the Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M. tuberculosis) complex, resposible for health problems in developing countries. In Africa, various medicinal plants are traditionally used to treat TB. The aim of this study is to carry out the phytochemical screening, to evaluate the antimycobacterial activity of the crude extracts of three medicinal plants present in Cameroon (Zingiber officinale, Vitellaria paradoxa and Alstonia boonei) and the acute toxicity of hydroethanolic extract of Vitellaria paradoxa. The phytochemical screening was obtained by hydroethanolic extraction and decoction. Inhibitory parameters of antimycobacterial activities were determined using the microplate alamar blue assay against M. tuberculosis H37Rv (ATCC 27294) and on one M. tuberculosis clinical strain. The crude extract with the best antimycobacterial activity was used for the acute toxicity assessment according to the OECD protocol. The results of the phytochemical screening revealed the presence of triterpenes and steroids in all the extracts, whereas phenols were only present in the decoction of Alstonia boonei. All extracts tested showed antimycobacterial activities. The hydroethanolic extract of V. paradoxa presented the best antimycobacterial activity with MICs of 78.13 and 625 μg/mL and MBCs of 78.13 and 2500 μg/mL respectively on M. tuberculosis H37Rv and on M. tuberculosis clinical strain. The results of the acute toxicity evaluation of V. paradoxa showed a lethal dose 50 greater than 5000 mg/kg compared to control. The antimycobacterial activity of all the plant extracts used in this study justifies the traditional use of these medicinal plants on the treatment of TB. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Shea products in Benin (West Africa) are produced in a low-developed agroindustry, but they are estimated to be the country’s third largest export. The nut harvesting and quality guaranteeing in the butter process can only be achieved through improvements in the value chain, thus making it more attractive for stakeholders. The aim of this paper is to provide keys to a better product valorization, obtain a significant increase in household incomes based on shea butter marketing opportunities, and offer competitive products at the local and regional markets. Different markets were designed to catch processors and consumers’ preferences for two improved shea products: butter and nuts in Northern Benin. An open-ended contingent valuation (CV) was applied, and the willingness to pay (WTP) and willingness to accept (WTA) were estimated by using a typical ordinary least squares (OLS) modelling approach. On local markets in Benin, the color, length, and weight of the nuts, as well as the color, smell, and texture of shea butter significantly influence, respectively, the processors’ willingness to accept and the consumers’ willingness to pay for a specific quality level. An increase in price would ensure the quality of the shea butter and would be covered by the premium to be paid by consumers. Certification design and the development of shea resources management and conservation programs should include ethnic preferences and consider gender, to avoid reducing women’s profits in the shea butter local market. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Vitellaria paradoxa (V. paradoxa) is a plant used in traditional medicine in the treatment of many diseases including diabetes mellitus. Although the different parts of this plant are used empirically as antidiabetic drug, no scientific work to our knowledge has yet been undertaken to evaluate its effects on blood glucose, and lipid and antioxidant parameters of diabetic animals. The objective of this study is therefore to evaluate the hypoglycaemic, hypolipidemic and antioxidant activities of the aqueous extract of V. paradoxa barks in diabetic rats. Methods: Diabetes was induced by intraperitoneal injection of alloxan (120 mg/kg bw). Thirty male albino rats were divided into groups and orally treated for 14 days with distilled water, glibenclamide (2.5 mg/kg bw) and aqueous extract of V. paradoxa (125, 250 and 500 mg/kg bw). Glycaemia, insulin level, relative body weight, hepatic glycogen level, some liver enzymes, and lipid and antioxidant parameters were evaluated. Results: The results showed that the extract caused a significant increase in relative body weight, insulin level, HDL-cholesterol, hepatic glycogen rate, and fructose-1,6-biphosphate and glucokinase activities. A significant decrease in glycaemia, glucose-6-phosphatase activity, total cholesterol, triglycerides and LDL-cholesterol were also observed after the administration of V. paradoxa. Glutathione level and the activities of catalase and superoxide dismutase increased significantly while the nitric oxide and malondialdehyde levels decreased significantly in the liver of animals treated with the extract of V. paradoxa. Conclusion: These results justify the hypoglycaemic, hypolipidemic and antioxidant effects of aqueous extract of V. paradoxa barks, which can reduce the complications associated with diabetes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Vitellaria paradoxa C. F. Gaertn is widely used in African traditional medicine as an anti-inflammatory remedy to treat rheumatism, gastric problems, diarrhea, and dysentery. The phytochemical investigation of the ethyl acetate extract of V. paradoxa stem bark collected in Burkina Faso led to the isolation of eight known and two triterpenes undescribed to date (7 and 10), in the free alcohol form or as acetyl and cinnamyl ester derivatives. The stereostructures of the new compounds were elucidated using HR-ESIMS and 1D and 2D NMR data. The isolated compounds were evaluated in vitro for their inhibitory effect on nitrite levels on murine macrophages J774 stimulated with the lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Among all the compounds tested, lupeol cinnamate (3) and betulinic acid (5) showed a beneficial effect in reducing nitrite levels produced after LPS stimulation.

Seed morphological characteristics were examined on germination and early growth of Vitellaria paradoxa. Seeds were sourced from Eruwa, Saki and New-Bussa in the Derived, Southern Guinea and Northern Guinea Savanna ecological zones of Nigeria respectively and classified into three sizes: large (length =45.00 mm); medium (length 40.00 - 45.00 mm) and small (length =40.0 mm). The seeds were sown, germination was monitored and recorded. Twelve weeks old seedlings were pricked into polythene pots filled with top soil arranged in 3x3 factorial experiment fitted in Completely Randomised Design (CRD) with three replicates. The seedlings were assessed for plant height (cm), stem diameter (mm), leaf production, and leaf area (cm²) on monthly basis for six consecutive months. The data collected were subjected to Analysis of Variance and the means were separated with Least Significant Difference (LSD) at 5% level of significance. Results indicated that both seed sizes and sources affected germination performance. Highest mean seed germination (84.4%) was observed from large-sized seed from Saki while medium and small seed sizes from New-Bussa had 80.4% and 84.1% mean seed germination respectively. Seed source and size had significant influence (p=0.05) on early seedling growth of V. paradoxa. However, small-sized seeds gave optimum performance for mean stem diameter, leaf production and leaf area with 4.69 mm; 3.85 and 48.7 cm², respectively while large seed size had the highest mean height (6.72 cm). Seedlings growth is highly linked to seeds sizes; larger seeds had higher germinability and growth rate than the smaller seeds. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of the study was to determine the feasibility of the Vitellaria paradoxa nutshell as a new medicinal resource for treating diabetes. A total of forty-one compounds were identified by HPLC-DAD-Q-TOF-MS and phytochemical methods in V. paradoxa nutshell methanol extract. Based on HPLC fingerprints, four characteristic constituents were quantified and the origin of twenty-eight V. paradoxa nutshells from seven sub-Saharan countries was compared, which were classified into three groups with chemometric method. Twenty-eight samples contained high total phenolic content, and exhibited moderate-higher antioxidant activity and strong α -glucosidase inhibitory activity. Furthermore, all fractions and isolated compounds were evaluated for their antioxidant and α -glucosidase inhibitory activities, and α -glucosidase inhibitory action mechanism of four characteristic constituents including protocatechuic acid, 3, 5, 7-trihydroxycoumarin, (2 R , 3 R)-(+)-taxifolin and quercetin was investigated via molecular docking method, which were all stabilized by hydrogen bonds with α -glucosidase. The study provided an effective approach to waste utilization of V. paradoxa nutshell, which would help to resolve waste environmental pollution and provide a basis for developing potential herbal resource for treating diabetes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study characterizes seed-related traits, phytochemical, physiochemical parameters and fatty acid profile of shea (Vitellaria paradoxa) seeds collected from the Kosubosu, Fufu and Sare areas of Kwara State, Nigeria to determine the effects of microclimate on seed morphology, biochemical and oil constituents. Seed morphological data were analyzed for variability. Seed oil was extracted for phytochemical constituents, physicochemical properties, and fatty acid profiling by gas chromatography equipped with mass spectrometry (GC/MS). Results showed intra and inter-locational variations in seed characters. Most fruits had 1–2 seeds. Seeds were predominantly brown and very few were dark brown. Phytochemicals and physicochemical parameters of the seed oil varied with place of collection. Alkaloid, saponin, tannin and phytate contents ranged between 0.79–0.84, 1.20–1.26, 1.48–1.56 and 0.15–0.18 mg g−1 respectively. The density of the oil was less than that of water, acid value ranged from 10.58–13.56 mg KOH g−1 and iodine values were between 36.63 to 40.32 g I2 (100 g)–1. Saponification values lie between 160.39 and 184.14 mg KOH g−1; and free fatty acid was within 5.32–6.81 %. Peroxide, ɑ-tocopherol, total phenol and oxalate values as well as viscosity of the oil also varied; however, refractive index was similar. Ethyl oleate and octadecanoic acids were present and most abundance in all the locations, while glycidol stearate was only found in Fufu samples with three other fatty acids. Five fatty acids were present in Kosubosu, while Sare had only two. The results obtained in the present study indicate that shea oil could be used for medicinal, nutritional and industrial purposes. Since seed characters, phytochemical, physicochemical and fatty acid compositions varied with the microclimate, environmental and micro-ecological conditions should be considered when collecting seeds for oil utilization. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Agroforestry parklands, characterized by scattered trees growing within cultivated crop fields, are the most widespread agricultural system in semi-arid West Africa. Agroforestry trees offer many ecological and socioeconomic benefits, such as added income, food, and medicine. They are currently under threat in this region due to recent changes in agricultural and land use practices. For example, a reduction in traditional fallow rotation periods has led to decreased regeneration of a common agroforestry tree, shea (Vitellaria paradoxa), which has been an important economic resource for women. The aims of this study were to determine beneficial spatial distributions of shea to maintain high yields of staple crops and to better understand male and female farmer perceptions of shea maintenance. We compared maize (Zea mays) vegetative growth, grain yield, soil moisture, and light availability associated with individual shea trees and clumps of trees on five farms in Ghanaian agroforestry parklands. We also interviewed local farmers to better understand their management perspectives. Maize vegetative growth increased with light availability, but was not limited by soil moisture. Conversely and contrary to farmer perceptions, grain yield was not influenced by light availability, but increased with increasing soil moisture. Also contrary to common beliefs of local farmers, grain yield was greater under clumps of shea compared to scattered distributions of individual trees. We therefore recommend the maintenance of clumped distributions of shea, as they provide beneficial microclimates for staple crops, and could assist in improving the productivity of shea products that are considered the domain of women farmers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]