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Extremely low-birthweight (ELBW) infants are at increased risk for infection because the innate immune function of their skin is underdeveloped as they lack a competent epidermal barrier. Thus, neonatal clinicians need to pay careful attention to skin care practices, particularly for periviable infants. In this review, we describe the challenges of skin care in ELBW infants and summarize strategies to prevent skin injury, minimize damage when it occurs, and enhance cutaneous innate immunity.

Background: Breast milk reduces morbidity and mortality in infants admitted to neonatal intensive care unit (NICU). Objectives: We determined predictors of procuring mother's own milk (MOM) among N...

Background/Objective Newborn infant skin is functional but immature, and diapering products can play a significant role in infant diapered skin health. Previous work demonstrated a regimen consisting of a diaper with an emollient and apertures on the inner liner (topsheet) with an acidic, pH‐buffered wipe (Regimen A) lowered newborn skin pH and reduced the enzymatic activity on skin post‐stool cleaning versus a regimen without these features (Regimen B). This study extends these findings to determine the impact of Regimen A on diaper area erythema severity over a 2‐week use period. Methods This IRB‐approved, blinded, randomized, crossover study enrolled newborn infants >7 days and ≤8 weeks. Participants exclusively used two unique diaper and wipe combinations, Regimen A and Regimen B (non‐emollient, non‐aperture containing topsheet and wipe with limited buffering capacity), each for 14 days and preceded by a 3‐day washout regimen. Results Diapered skin pH was reduced during Regimen A use to values similar to that of a non‐diapered control site (chest), while use of Regimen B was associated with a more alkaline skin pH. Regimen A resulted in significantly fewer severe erythema episodes. At the site of highest erythema, the perianal space, the average erythema score was significantly lower and more newborns were free of erythema while using Regimen A vs. Regimen B (P

A previously healthy 27-year-old gravida 1, para 0 woman is admitted with preterm labor and loss of fluids at 28 weeks’ gestation. She receives antenatal steroids and obstetric ultrasonography shows bilateral cerebral ventriculomegaly and an absent stomach bubble. Before admission, her pregnancy had been uneventful and findings on early anomaly screening ultrasonography at 19 weeks’ gestation are normal. Serologic tests for maternal group B Streptococcus , cytomegalovirus, toxoplasma, and Treponema all have negative findings. The fetal tracing becomes non-reassuring and the neonate is born via emergency cesarean delivery. The neonate has apnea, hypotonia, and bradycardia at birth and does not respond to face mask ventilation. He undergoes intubation by 5 minutes after birth, with improvement in his heart rate, but he remains limp without any spontaneous breathing. His Apgar scores are 1, 2, and 3 at 1, 5, and 10 minutes after birth, respectively. Arterial and venous cord blood gases are 7.29 pH and 7.36 pH. Initial examination shows a preterm infant with appropriate weight, length, and head circumference for age, decorticate posturing, hypotonia of the lower extremities, …

Introduction: Skin interventions have been implemented to reduce neonatal mortality, demonstrating the skin’s role in neonatal innate immunity. We examined the impact of birthweight and environmental conditions on skin integrity in infants receiving oil massage in rural Nepal. Methods: In a community-based cluster randomized controlled trial, 991 premature and full-term infants were grouped by birthweight as: (1) 920–1,560 g, (2) 1,570–2,450 g, (3) 2,460–2,990 g, and (4) 3,000–4,050 g and by high or low heat index (HI). Skin integrity was measured as erythema, rash, dryness, pH, protein concentration, and transepidermal water loss (TEWL). Results: Skin pH was higher for the smallest (group 1) than the largest infants (group 4) and higher for group 2 than 3 and 4. Arm and leg rash differed for all 4 groups, with the least amount of rash for the smallest babies. Erythema was lower for group 1 than all others. The lower day 1 values for pH, TEWL and protein at high versus low HI remained lower over 28 days. The pH reduction was faster at high HI. Erythema (arm, leg) was more severe at high HI. Rash severity was greater at high HI for arms and legs every day. Conclusions: Birthweight influenced the skin response to oil massage. The smallest infants had the lowermost skin irritation, suggesting diminished ability to mount an inflammatory response. High HI may be protective for premature infants in low resource settings.

To evaluate the effects of gestational age (GA) and postnatal age on skin barrier integrity by comparing premature infants at full-term corrected age with infants born at term. Parallel comparison of chest skin in 36 premature infants with 39 full-term infants using daily measures of transepidermal water loss (TEWL), skin pH, erythema and rash, over 2 weeks. Chest skin pH was significantly lower for premature infants, indicating that acid mantle formation had occurred in the premature versus full-term infants. Chest TEWL was significantly higher for premature versus full-term infants over 2 weeks, suggesting that even 7–8 weeks after birth, skin integrity is poorer in premature infants. Skin barrier properties of premature infants at adjusted full-term age differ from full-term infants, suggesting that epidermal barrier development depends on GA and time from birth. These maturational differences may influence premature infant response to topical agents.

Background/Objectives Diaper dermatitis is one of the most frequent skin conditions affecting infants and is associated with elevated skin pH, exposure to urine and feces, and increased fecal protease and lipase activity, resulting in stratum corneum barrier damage and increased risk of infection. The study aim was to determine the impact of two diaper and wipe regimens on newborn infant skin pH and residual enzyme activity after stool cleaning. Methods Two diaper and wipe regimens were compared in a randomized, single‐blinded crossover study. Regimen A paired an emollient‐containing diaper with an acidic, pH‐buffered wipe. Regimen B was a non‐emollient diaper and wipe with limited buffering capacity. A 3‐day washout period preceded each 3‐day regimen use period. Skin pH at the perianal/buttocks interface (PBI), genital region, and undiapered chest control were measured at baseline and day 3. Skin swabs were collected for residual enzyme activity after a stool cleaning event. Results Diapered skin pH at the PBI was similar to undiapered skin after 3 days of use for Regimen A, while PBI pH for Regimen B was elevated versus control. PBI pH was lower for Regimen A versus Regimen B. After a stool cleaning, PBI skin pH for Regimen A was lower immediately and had lower residual enzyme activity versus Regimen B (P

BACKGROUND Bubble continuous positive airway pressure (bCPAP) is a simple, safe, and cost-effective strategy to provide respiratory support to newborns with respiratory distress syndrome in resource-limited settings. PURPOSE To understand whether implementation of bCPAP, relative to other modes of respiratory support in the care of newborns with respiratory distress syndrome, increases positive attitudes about its potential for consistent and widespread use among providers in neonatal intensive care units (NICUs) of lower middle-income countries. METHODS Semistructured qualitative interviews with 14 healthcare providers, including 5 neonatal nurses, 2 respiratory therapists, 5 postgraduate trainees in pediatrics, and 2 attending physicians, were conducted at a level III NICU in south India where bCPAP had been in consistent use for 6 years. Interviews were transcribed and then coded and categorized using NVivo 10 Software (QSR International, Victoria, Australia). FINDINGS Categories that emerged from our data include (1) perceived indications, (2) learning curve, (3) perceived costs, (4) perceived shortages, and (5) barriers to use. Providers believed that bCPAP was easy to learn and that it helped empower neonatal nurses in decision-making process. Participants provided a nuanced perspective of cost-benefit associated with bCPAP and that it helped make optimal use of limited resources. Participants identified several barriers to the implementation of bCPAP. IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE Providers of a level III NICU in a lower- to middle-income country viewed the use of bCPAP favorably. Addressing context-specific barriers will be important for the successful widespread implementation of bCPAP. IMPLICATIONS FOR RESEARCH Further research will need to focus on whether bCPAP can be safely implemented at level II NICUs.Video Abstract Available at https://journals.lww.com/advancesinneonatalcare/Pages/videogallery.aspx.

The timing of antenatal steroids (ANS) on short- and long-term effects on newborn infants was evaluated.This study was conducted at the University of Cincinnati Medical Center Level-III Neonatal Intensive Care Unit by reviewing the medical records of all women with history of ANS exposure from January 2015 to December 2018. We compared outcomes of newborns delivered within the ideal therapeutic window of 24 hours to 7 days (within window [WW]) after administration to those exposed and delivered outside the therapeutic window (outside window primary group [OWP]). Outcomes included anthropometrics, blood sugars, thyroid hormone profile, and neonatal morbidities.A total of 669 patients were identified as having received at least two doses of ANS. Two-thirds of them delivered within the ideal therapeutic window. Significant differences were found in anthroprometrics including lower birth weight, shorter length, and smaller head circumferences in those born within the window compared with those outside the window. Derangements in glucose homeostasis requiring treatment and elevations of thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) were seen in infants born outside the ideal therapeutic window compared with those born within the therapeutic window. No differences were found in neonatal morbidities including severe intraventricular hemorrhage (sIVH), necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC), need for resuscitation, exogenous surfactant administration, continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP), mechanical ventilation, bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD), or periventricular leukomalacia (PVL). After controlling for selected covariates, only birth length was different between the groups.Effects on anthropometrics, glucose homeostasis, and thyroid function support the need to develop new or refine existing risk stratification systems to time the administration of antenatal steroids. Better targeting of women and fetuses may confer the benefits of systemic corticosteroids while mitigating the risks of adverse effects.· The timing of antenatal steroids on short and long-term effects on newborn infants was evaluated.. · Differences were found in anthroprometrics, glucoses, and thyroid function.. · No differences were found in neonatal morbidities..

Background Natural oils are applied daily to newborn infant skin during massage in certain cultures. In hospitalized premature infants, topical oils reduced infection and improved skin condition. A community study among neonates in rural Nepal compared sunflower and mustard oils for effects on skin integrity. Particularly notable was the rapid increase in skin rash that peaked at day 14 and lessened by day 28 for both oils, a finding not previously reported. # Methods To investigate the rash physiology, high-resolution digital images were collected for a subset of 216 premature and full-term infants. Image features were characterized for type and severity, quantified for color and surface texture and compared to measures of skin barrier integrity. # Results Skin features were observed in 403 of 811 images, including localized erythema, discrete papules and an occasional pustule. Miliaria crystallina was noted in 32.2%. A second texture, with raised, “pebble” features, characterized 26%. Of 216 subjects, 61% had “pebble” on at least one visit. Miliaria severity increased and day 14 was higher than 1 and 7 (P

BackgroundThe objective of this study was to measure skin characteristics in premature (PT), late preterm (LPT), and full-term (FT) neonates compared with adults at two times (T1, T2).MethodsSkin samples of 61 neonates and 34 adults were analyzed for protein biomarkers, natural moisturizing factor (NMF), and biophysical parameters. Infant groups were: ResultsForty proteins were differentially expressed in FT infant skin, 38 in LPT infant skin, and 12 in PT infant skin compared with adult skin at T1. At T2, 40 proteins were differentially expressed in FT infants, 38 in LPT infants, and 54 in PT infants compared with adults. All proteins were increased at both times, except TMG3, S100A7, and PEBP1, and decreased in PTs at T1. The proteins are involved in filaggrin processing, protease inhibition/enzyme regulation, and antimicrobial function. Eight proteins were decreased in PT skin compared with FT skin at T1. LPT and FT proteins were generally comparable at both times. Total NMF was lower in infants than adults at T1, but higher in infants at T2.ConclusionsNeonates respond to the physiological transitions at birth by upregulating processes that drive the production of lower pH of the skin and water-binding NMF components, prevent protease activity leading to desquamation, and increase the barrier antimicrobial properties.ImpactNeonates respond to the transitions at birth by upregulating processes that drive the production of lower pH of the skin and NMF, prevent protease activity leading to desquamation, and increase the antimicrobial properties of the barrier.The neonatal epidermal barrier exhibits a markedly different array of protein biomarkers both shortly after birth and 2–3 months later, which are differentially expressed versus adults.The major biomarker-functional classes included filaggrin processing, protease inhibitor/enzyme regulators, antimicrobials, keratins, lipids, and cathepsins.The findings will guide improvement of infant skin care practices, particularly for the most premature infants with the ultimate goals mitigating nosocomial infection.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the effects of early treatment with CPAP on nutritional intake and in-hospital growth rates of extremely preterm (EPT) infants. STUDY DESIGN: EPT infants (24–0/7 to 27–6/7 weeks of gestation) enrolled in the Surfactant Positive Airway Pressure and Pulse Oximetry Trial (SUPPORT) were included. EPT infants who died before 36 weeks’ postmenstrual age (PMA) were excluded. The growth rates from birth to 36 weeks’ PMA and follow-up outcomes at 18–22 months’ corrected age of EPT infants randomized at birth to either early CPAP (intervention group) or early intubation for surfactant administration (control group) were analyzed. RESULTS: 810 of 1316 infants enrolled in SUPPORT (414 in intervention group, 396 in control group) had growth data analyzed. Median gestational age was 26 weeks and mean birthweight was 839 grams. Baseline characteristics, total nutritional intake, and in-hospital comorbidities were not significantly different between groups. In a regression model, growth rates between birth and 36 weeks’ PMA as well as growth rates during multiple intervals from birth to day 7, day 7 to14, day 14 to 21, day 21 to 28, day 28 to 32 weeks’ PMA, and 32 weeks’ PMA to 36 weeks’ PMA did not differ between treatment groups. Independent of treatment group, higher growth rates from day 21 to day 28 were associated with a lower risk of Bayley III cognitive score

An amendment to this paper has been published and can be accessed via a link at the top of the paper.

In an analysis of all Ohio newborn infants discharged home alive between 2007 and 2012, the authors identified that significant variation in hospital charges (among Medicare Severity Diagnostic Related Group categorizations), previously identified nationally, persists at the state and local levels among term and preterm infants (p

Full term neonatal skin is well prepared to immediately protect the infant from water loss, light, irritants, and infectious agents and provide innate immunity, tactile discrimination, thermal regulation and acid mantle formation. The functions are conferred by three major layers, the outermost stratum corneum, viable epidermis and dermis, and specialized cells within them. Herein, we describe the current “state-of-the-science” regarding the function and structure of neonatal skin, both for healthy full term infants and those born prematurely, and the adaptive changes that occur after birth. There is a particular emphasis on the stratum corneum (SC) because preserving the integrity of this layer is essential to insuring protection. The key gaps in the understanding of premature skin barrier development and the areas for future research will be discussed.

Native vernix is a multifunctional skin cream with properties of skin moisturization/hydration, anti-infective, skin cleansing, skin barrier repair, wound healing, and skin barrier protection against irritants. Vernix facilitates formation of the stratum corneum (SC) in utero through yet to be fully determined mechanisms. It enables development of the SC barrier in the normal, full term infant through a variety of protective and adaptive mechanisms. The findings provide support for the practice keeping vernix on the skin at birth and waiting at least six hours prior to bathing newborn infants.

We tested the hypothesis that sodium supplementation in early preterm infants prevents late-onset hyponatremia and improves growth without increasing common morbidities during birth hospitalization.This was a randomized, masked controlled trial of 4 mEq/kg/d of sodium (intervention) versus sterile water (placebo) from days-of-life 7 to 35 in infants born at32 weeks corrected gestational age. The primary outcome was weight gain in the first 6 weeks of life. Secondary outcomes included weekly serum sodium concentrations, growth in body length and head circumference, and complications of prematurity during birth hospitalization.Fifty-three infants with an average corrected gestational age of 28.5 ± 2.4 weeks were randomized. Infants receiving the intervention had fewer (P = .012) reports of serum sodium concentrations135 mmol/L and greater velocity of weight gain during the study period, mean (SD) 26.9 (3.1) vs 22.9 (4.7) g/kg/day, P = .012. At 6 weeks of age, infants28 weeks' gestation who received sodium supplementation had greater percentage weight change from birth, mean (SD) 193% (22%) vs 173% (10%), P = .041, and maintained fetal reference birth percentile for body weight more often (P = .002) compared with infants receiving placebo. Growth in length and head circumference was not significantly different between study arms. No increase in common prematurity-related morbidities was detected in infants who received supplemental sodium chloride.Sodium supplementation of enteral feedings in very premature infants averts hyponatremia and enhances weight gain.

Objectives To identify variables associated with successful elective extubation, and to determine neonatal morbidities associated with extubation failure in extremely preterm neonates. Study design This study was a secondary analysis of the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Neonatal Research Network's Surfactant, Positive Pressure, and Oxygenation Randomized Trial that included extremely preterm infants born at 240/7 to 276/7 weeks' gestation. Patients were randomized either to a permissive ventilatory strategy (continuous positive airway pressure group) or intubation followed by early surfactant (surfactant group). There were prespecified intubation and extubation criteria. Extubation failure was defined as reintubation within 5 days of extubation. Results Of 1316 infants in the trial, 1071 were eligible; 926 infants had data available on extubation status; 538 were successful and 388 failed extubation. The rate of successful extubation was 50% (188/374) in the continuous positive airway pressure group and 63% (350/552) in the surfactant group. Successful extubation was associated with higher 5-minute Apgar score, and pH prior to extubation, lower peak fraction of inspired oxygen within the first 24 hours of age and prior to extubation, lower partial pressure of carbon dioxide prior to extubation, and non-small for gestational age status after adjustment for the randomization group assignment. Infants who failed extubation had higher adjusted rates of mortality (OR 2.89), bronchopulmonary dysplasia (OR 3.06), and death/ bronchopulmonary dysplasia (OR 3.27). Conclusions Higher 5-minute Apgar score, and pH prior to extubation, lower peak fraction of inspired oxygen within first 24 hours of age, lower partial pressure of carbon dioxide and fraction of inspired oxygen prior to extubation, and nonsmall for gestational age status were associated with successful extubation. Failed extubation was associated with significantly higher likelihood of mortality and morbidities. Trial registration ClinicalTrials.gov : NCT00233324 .

Objective To characterize actual achieved patterns of oxygenation in infants born appropriate vs small for gestational age (SGA) randomized to a lower (85-89%) vs higher (91%-95%) oxygen saturation target in the Surfactant Positive Pressure and Oxygen Trial. To determine the association between achieved oxygen saturation levels and survival in infants born appropriate vs SGA enrolled in the Surfactant Positive Pressure and Oxygen Trial. Study design Median oxygen saturation and intermittent hypoxemia events ( 0/7 -27 6/7 weeks of gestation while receiving supplemental oxygen during the first 3 days of life. Results Lower target infants who were small for gestational age had the lowest oxygen saturation and highest incidence of intermittent hypoxemia during the first 3 days of life. The lowest quartile of oxygen saturation (≤92%) during the first 3 days of life was associated with lower 90-day survival for both infants born appropriate and SGA. An increased incidence of intermittent hypoxemia events during the first 3 days of life was associated with lower 90-day survival only in infants born SGA. Conclusion Lower achieved oxygen saturation during the first 3 days of life was associated with lower 90-day survival in extremely preterm infants. Infants born SGA had enhanced vulnerability to lower oxygen saturation targets as evidenced by lower achieved oxygen saturation and an association between increased intermittent hypoxemia events and lower survival. Trial registration ClinicalTrials.gov: NCT00233324.

Incidence of headaches across different regions and its relationship to unemployment rates in the United States before and during an economic recession was evaluated. Years 2008 and 2009 were determined as recessionary period. Headache-related admissions, particularly the uncomplicated headaches, increased significantly during recession. Proportion of women with headaches has increased and the age group of 25–54 years was the most affected during the recession. The hospital charges have increased even though the average length and charge of stay decreased. These findings are consistent with our understanding of effects of stress and unemployment on psychological and physical health.

Objective To explore differences in blood cytokine profiles among distinct bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD) patterns. Study design We evaluated blood spots collected from 943 infants born at ≤1000 g and surviving to 28 days on postnatal days 1, 3, 7, 14, and 21 for 25 cytokines. Infants were assigned to the following lung disease patterns: (1) no lung disease (NLD); (2) respiratory distress syndrome without BPD; (3) classic BPD (persistent exposure to supplemental oxygen until 28 days of age); or (4) atypical BPD (period without supplemental oxygen before 28 days). Median cytokine levels for infants with BPD were compared with the IQR of results among infants with NLD. Results The distribution of enrolled infants by group was as follows: 69 (NLD), 73 (respiratory distress syndrome), 381 (classic BPD), and 160 (atypical BPD). The remaining 260 infants could not be classified because of missing data (104) or not fitting a predefined pattern (156). Median levels of 3 cytokines (elevated interleukin [IL]-8, matrix metalloproteinase-9; decreased granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor) fell outside the IQR for at least 2 time points in both infants with atypical and classic BPD. Profiles of 7 cytokines (IL-6, IL-10, IL-18, macrophage inflammatory protein-1α, C-reactive protein, brain-derived neurotrophic factor, regulated on activation, normal T cell expressed and secreted) differed between infants with classic and atypical BPD. Conclusions Blood cytokine profiles may differ between infants developing classic and atypical BPD. These dissimilarities suggest the possibility that differing mechanisms could explain the varied patterns of pathophysiology of lung disease in extremely premature infants.

The objective of this study is to assess the opportunities afforded to and competence of pediatric residents in performing neonatal endotracheal intubations.The records of all intubations performed on neonates over a 3-year period at a university-based birthing hospital were reviewed to assess the relationships between outcomes, types of providers and the setting of intubations.A total of 785 attempts were made during 362 intubations. Pediatric residents were given the opportunity to intubate 38% of the cohort (n=137) and were successful on 21% of the attempts. Residents were more likely to perform intubation in the neonatal intensive care unit (vs delivery room; P0.001), in non-emergency situations (P0.001), and on older (P0.001) and larger (P=0.07) infants.Opportunities for residents to intubate neonates were few and their success rate was low. In the current care paradigm, it is doubtful if trainees can be sufficiently skilled in endotracheal intubation during residency. Residents that plan to pursue procedure-intensive subspecialties may benefit from other models for training.

To test whether infants randomized to a lower oxygen saturation (peripheral capillary oxygen saturation [SpO2]) target range while on supplemental oxygen from birth will have better growth velocity from birth to 36 weeks postmenstrual age (PMA) and less growth failure at 36 weeks PMA and 18-22 months corrected age.We evaluated a subgroup of 810 preterm infants from the Surfactant, Positive Pressure, and Oxygenation Randomized Trial, randomized at birth to lower (85%-89%, n = 402, PMA 26 ± 1 weeks, birth weight 839 ± 186 g) or higher (91%-95%, n = 408, PMA 26 ± 1 weeks, birth weight 840 ± 191 g) SpO2 target ranges. Anthropometric measures were obtained at birth, postnatal days 7, 14, 21, and 28; then at 32 and 36 weeks PMA; and 18-22 months corrected age. Growth velocities were estimated with the exponential method and analyzed with linear mixed models. Poor growth outcome, defined as weight10th percentile at 36 weeks PMA and 18-22 months corrected age, was compared across the 2 treatment groups by the use of robust Poisson regression.Growth outcomes including growth at 36 weeks PMA and 18-22 months corrected age, as well as growth velocity were similar in the lower and higher SpO2 target groups.Targeting different oxygen saturation ranges between 85% and 95% from birth did not impact growth velocity or reduce growth failure in preterm infants.

Objective: To examine the relationship of race and maternal characteristics and their association with cord blood vitamin D levels and small-for-gestational-age (SGA) status. Study Design: Cord blood vitamin D levels were measured in 438 infants (276 black and 162 white). Multivariable logistic regression models were used to evaluate associations between maternal characteristics, vitamin D status and SGA. Results: Black race, Medicaid status, mean body mass index at delivery and lack of prenatal vitamin use were associated with vitamin D deficiency. Black infants had 3.6 greater adjusted odds (95% confidence interval (CI): 2.4, 5.6) of vitamin D deficiency when compared with white infants. Black infants with vitamin D deficiency had 2.4 greater adjusted odds (95% CI: 1.0, 5.8) of SGA. Vitamin D deficiency was not significantly associated with SGA in white infants. Conclusion: Identification of risk factors (black race, Medicaid status, obesity and lack of prenatal vitamin use) can lead to opportunities for targeted prenatal vitamin supplementation to reduce the risk of neonatal vitamin D deficiency and SGA status.

We sought to determine the incidence of necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC) and spontaneous intestinal perforation (SIP) in surviving extremely low-birth-weight (ELBW

To compare continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) vs. traditional mechanical ventilation (MV) at 24 h of age as predictors of neurodevelopmental (ND) outcomes in extremely low birth weight (ELBW) infants at 18–22 months corrected gestational age (CGA). Infants ≤1000 g birth weight born from January 2000 through December 2006 at two hospitals at the Cincinnati site of the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Neonatal Research Network were evaluated comparing CPAP (n = 198) vs. MV (n = 109). Primary outcomes included the Bayley Score of Infant Development Version II (BSID-II), presence of deafness, blindness, cerebral palsy, bronchopulmonary dysplasia and death. Ventilatory groups were similar in gender, rates of preterm prolonged rupture of membranes, antepartum hemorrhage, use of antenatal antibiotics, steroids, and tocolytics. Infants receiving CPAP weighed more, were older, were more likely to be non-Caucasian and from a singleton pregnancy. Infants receiving CPAP had better BSID-II scores, and lower rates of BPD and death. After adjusting for acuity differences, ventilatory strategy at 24 h of age independently predicts long-term neurodevelopmental outcome in ELBW infants.

Our goal was to improve quality and safety of care to our obstetric and neonatal patients (presenting between 34 0/7 and 36 6/7 weeks) by lowering the overall induction rate, lowering the elective induction rate less than 39 weeks, decreasing the unanticipated admissions of late preterm infants to the special care nursery (SCN), decreasing the number of transports out of our level II SCN to a higher level III neonatal intensive care unit, and increasing safety culture scores of the Family Birth Center staff at Mercy Hospital Anderson, Cincinnati, OH. A retrospective chart review was conducted over a 2-year period. In 2005, after an intense analysis of the Family Birth Center, the overall induction rate and elective induction rate of less than 39 weeks' gestation were at an alarming 26.4% and 12.1%, respectively. Best practice guidelines for scheduling an induction were developed in collaboration with nursing and medical staff. These elective induction guidelines required patients to have completed 39 0/7 weeks of gestation and to have a Bishop score of at least 8 for nulliparas and 6 for multiparas. In 2006, the induction scheduling process and these newly developed guidelines were strictly enforced. In 2007, outcomes including total induction rate, elective induction rate for less than 39 weeks, cesarean birth rate for elective inductions among nulliparas, and SCN unanticipated admissions of infants 34 0/7 to 36 6/7 weeks' gestation (late preterm infants) were compared with these same measures in 2005.

Neonatal skin hydration decreases rapidly postnatally and then increases, indicating adaptive changes in stratum corneum water handling properties. Transition from high to low humidity at birth may initiate filaggrin proteolysis to free amino acids. Neonatal skin with vernix caseosa retained is more hydrated than skin with vernix removed. This study examines the potential roles of free amino acids and vernix in postnatal adaptation of infant stratum corneum in vivo. Specifically, the ontogeny of free amino acid generation in neonatal stratum corneum and the role of vernix caseosa in postnatal adaptation were examined using high performance liquid chromatography. Free amino acids were quantified for infant skin samples collected at (i) birth and 1 month and (ii) birth and 24 hours after vernix caseosa retention or removal and compared to neonatal foreskin, vernix caseosa, and adult stratum corneum using t-tests, analysis of variance, or univariate procedures. Free amino acids were extremely low at birth, significantly higher 1 month later but lower than in adults. Vernix caseosa retention led to significantly higher free amino acids 24 hours after birth compared to infants with vernix caseosa removed, and it paralleled the higher stratum corneum hydration of vernix caseosa-retained skin. Vernix caseosa contained free amino acids, with glutamic acid and histidine levels higher than in infants. Free amino acids in vernix caseosa-retained skin appear to originate from vernix caseosa. Free amino acids were lower in neonatal foreskin than adult forearm stratum corneum. Arginine was higher than citrulline at birth, but levels were comparable in older infants. The free amino acid increase at 1 month may be initiated by the humidity transition at birth and supports results in animals. The findings have implications for infant skin care practices.

Epidermal innate immunity is a complex process involving a balance of pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines, structural proteins, and specific antigen presenting cells occurring against a background of neuroendocrine modulators such as cortisol. In this study, a multiplex array system was used to simultaneously determine multiple molecular factors critical for development of epidermal innate immune function from the skin surface of premature and term infants, healthy adults, and vernix caseosa. Samples were analyzed for Keratin 1,10,11, Keratin 6, involucrin, albumin, fibronectin and cortisol, and cytokines IL-1, TNFalpha, IL-6, IL-8, MCP1, IP10, IFNgamma, and IL-1 receptor antagonist. Keratin 1,10,11 was decreased and involucrin was increased in infants versus adults. All infants had elevated IL1alpha and reduced TNFalpha versus adults. IL-6, IL-8, and MCP1 were significantly increased in premature versus term infants and adults. Skin surface cortisol and albumin were significantly elevated in premature infants. The biomarker profile in premature infants was unique with differences in structural proteins, albumin, and cytokines IL-6, IL-1beta, IL-8, and MCP1. The higher infant IL1alpha may be associated with skin barrier maturation. The significant elevations in skin surface cortisol for preterm infants may reflect a neuroendocrine response to the stress of premature birth.

We report a case of fatal congenital cytomegalovirus (CMV) disease in a 695 gm, 29 weeks estimated gestational age premature infant. The newborn presented with hydrops fetalis, an unusual presentation of congenital CMV infection. In spite of ganciclovir therapy, the infant succumbed to his illness. Autopsy findings revealed the presence of widespread CMV disease, including pneumonitis, enteritis, and myocarditis. Congenital CMV infection should be considered in the differential diagnosis of hydrops fetalis.

To characterize vernix caseosa in newborn infants with respect to factors that influence vernix distribution on the skin surface, vernix effects on thermal stability, skin hydration, acid mantle development, and vernix antioxidant properties. Vernix distribution was determined for 430 infants. Thermal stability was assessed in parallel groups following vernix retention (n=66) and removal (n=64). The effects of vernix retention on skin hydration, pH, erythema, and dryness/scaling were determined. Samples were analyzed for vitamin E before and after UV exposure. Vernix distribution depended upon gestational age, delivery mode, gender, race, and meconium exposure. Retention had no effect on axillary temperatures. Skin hydration was significantly higher for vernix-retained skin. Skin pH and erythema were significantly lower with retention. Vitamin E levels were decreased by ultraviolet radiation. Vernix is a naturally occurring barrier cream with multiple salubrious effects, which support its retention on the skin surface at birth.

Objective This study was undertaken to define the spectrum, activity, and spatial distribution of antimicrobial peptides in vernix caseosa and amniotic fluid in the absence of clinical chorioamnionitis. Study design Characterization of innate immune proteins in vernix and amniotic fluid obtained from pregnancies with gestational ages greater than 37 weeks by Western analysis, immunohistochemistry, and antimicrobial growth inhibition assay. Results Lysozyme, lactoferrin, human neutrophil peptides 1-3, and secretory leukocyte protease inhibitor were identified by Western analysis in vernix suspensions (n=25) and amniotic fluid samples (n=10). Three other important antimicrobial proteins, human beta defensin-2, lactoperoxidase, and LL-37 were not detected. Amniotic fluid and soluble extracts of vernix exhibited muramidase (lysozyme) activity, and there was selective efficacy in inhibiting growth of common perinatal pathogens. Antimicrobial peptides were concentrated in discrete, organized, acellular "granules" embedded in the vernix lipid matrix. Conclusion In the absence of chorioamnionitis, vernix and amniotic fluid contain an organized pool of antimicrobial peptides with a defined spectrum of bioactivity against common bacterial and fungal pathogens.

OBJECTIVE: To test whether the introduction of early bubble continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) results in improved respiratory outcomes in extremely low birth-weight infants. STUDY DESIGN: Outcomes of all infants between 401 and 1000 g born in a level 3 neonatal intensive care units (NICU) between July 2000 and October 2001 (period 2) were compared using historical controls (period 1). Early bubble (CPAP) was prospectively introduced in the NICU during period 1. Univariate and adjusted comparisons were made across time periods. RESULTS: Delivery room intubations, days on mechanical ventilation and use of postnatal steroids decreased (p

Significance: During gestation, fetal skin progresses from a single layer derived from ectoderm to a complex, multi-layer tissue with the stratum corneum (SC) as the outermost layer. Innate immunity is a conferred complex process involving a balance of pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines, structural proteins, and specific antigen-presenting cells. The SC is a part of the innate immune system as an impermeable physical barrier containing anti-microbial lipids and host defense proteins. Postnatally, the epidermis continually replenishes itself, provides a protective barrier, and repairs injuries. Recent Advances: Vernix caseosa protects the fetus during gestation and facilitates development of the SC in the aqueous uterine environment. The anti-infective, hydrating, acidification, and wound-healing properties post birth provide insights for the development of strategies that facilitate SC maturation and repair in the premature infant. Critical Issues: Reduction of infant mortality is a global health priori...

After completing this article, readers should be able to: 1. Name the four epidermal strata. 2. List the epidermal stratum that is primarily deficient in the very low-birthweight preterm infant and its primary function. 3. Characterize the physiologic similarities between the developing skin and the developing lung. 4. Describe the only nonectodermal cell in the epidermis, its derivations, and its functions in the innate immune system. 5. List the physiologic mechanisms contributing to epidermal barrier formation. Problems related to the epidermal barrier are particularly acute in the very low-birthweight (VLBW) population. Approximately 500,000 preterm infants are born each year in the United States. (1) The survival and long-term outcomes of these infants are directly proportional to their maturity and weight at birth. Preterm infants account for 74% of neonatal deaths. Those born before 28 weeks of gestation account for 50% of neonatal deaths. (1) This vulnerable population possesses an absent or incompetent epidermal barrier. (2) Such infants have problems with temperature control and infection and an increased likelihood of damage from adhesives and superficial trauma. A better understanding of the ontogeny of the epidermal barrier is critical to developing evidence-based guidelines for infant skin care and neonatal care practices. Skin care practices affecting VLBW infants include bathing/cleansing, thermoregulation, acid mantle formation, blood drawing, care of central venous catheters, and adhesion of tapes. The scientific basis for such practices is grounded in an understanding of the biochemistry and development of the epidermal barrier. The skin is a complex, multifunctional organ that forms the interface between the organism and the environment (Fig. 1⇓ ). The bulk of the skin is composed of the dermis and consists of collagen embedded in a hydrated matrix of glycosaminoglycans. Blood vessels and the vast majority of cutaneous nerve endings are present in the dermis. The cells of the dermis and …

This article summarizes available data on the biology and potential role(s) of vernix caseosa during late pregnancy and early postnatal adaptation. Vernix is a uniquely human material with structural and functional similarities to the outermost layer of the epidermis, ie, stratum corneum. Vernix consists of hydrated fetal corneocytes embedded in a hydrophobic matrix composed of a mixture of sebaceous and epidermal barrier lipids. Approximately 80% of vernix is water; the high water content of vernix serves to distinguish it from other skin barrier creams. Specific anti-infective and antioxidant molecules have recently been reported in vernix. These findings are consistent with biological roles that are more complex than simple waterproofing or moisturization. A specific endocrine-based mechanism responsible for vernix formation in utero is put forward as a working conceptual model. Preterm infants lack both a stratum corneum and a protective mantle of vernix. Clinically, the application of vernix or a synthetic analog may prove useful for improving barrier status in preterm infants and other conditions characterized by compromised epidermal barrier function. Given the importance of skin care in nursing in general, research on vernix biology may be a fruitful area for nursing science and the development of evidence-based nursing practice. Copyright © 2001 by W.B. Saunders Company

This chapter focuses on recent advances in preterm infant skin care related to skin adhesion and skin emolliency. Different types of adhesives and hydrating agents are reviewed. Clinical applications are best guided by understanding the biology of epidermal barrier development. The role of xeric stress in accelerating formation of the stratum corneum is discussed along with the effects of occlusive agents and emollients on wound healing and epidermal barrier repair. The principles of skin moisturization are introduced. The concept is advanced that programmatic changes in skin adhesion and water handling occur during the normal ontogeny of superficial biofilms (sebum, sweat, acid mantle).

Background Nosocomial [hospital-associated or neonatal intensive care unit (NICU)-associated] infections occur in as many as 10 to 36% of very low-birth-weight infants cared for in NICUs. Objective To determine the potentially avoidable, incremental costs of care associated with NICU-associated bloodstream infections. Study Design This retrospective study included all NICU admissions of infants weighing 401 to 1500 g at birth in the greater Cincinnati region from January 1, 2005, through December 31, 2007. Nonphysician costs of care were compared between infants who developed at least one bacterial bloodstream infection prior to NICU discharge or death and infants who did not. Costs were adjusted for clinical and demographic characteristics that are present in the first 3 days of life and are known associates of infection. Results Among 900 study infants with no congenital anomaly and no major surgery, 82 (9.1%) developed at least one bacterial bloodstream infection. On average, the cost of NICU care was $16,800 greater per infant who experienced NICU-associated bloodstream infection. Conclusion Potentially avoidable costs of care associated with bloodstream infection can be used to justify investments in the reliable implementation of evidence-based interventions designed to prevent these infections.

OBJECTIVES: To test the hypothesis that the promotion of national guidelines recommending the transfer of high-risk mothers to subspecialty perinatal centers reduces mortality and morbidity through the reduction of preterm infants delivered at nontertiary maternity hospitals. METHODS: After implementation of hospital-based educational and communication programs emphasizing the importance of maternal transfer to subspecialty perinatal centers, we conducted a population-based cohort study of all live births delivered at maternity hospitals in greater Cincinnati from 2003 through 2007 (n = 1825). Birth weights measured between 500 and 1499 g and gestational ages were less than 32 weeks. Risk-adjusted outcomes were measured by multivariate logistic regression in 2 stages. We compared these findings with those from a similar study conducted at our institution that included infants with birth weights less than 1500 g born between September 1, 1995, and December 31, 1997 (n = 848). The primary outcome was the percentage decrease in infants born with very low birth weights at nontertiary centers compared with our previous study. RESULTS: The number of infants born with birth weights less than 1500 g and at less than 32 weeks' gestation delivered at hospitals without tertiary perinatal and neonatal care decreased from 25% to 11.8% between the 2 study periods. The odds of death or major morbidity for infants born with very low birth weights at nontertiary perinatal centers is 3 times that of infants born at subspecialty perinatal centers after controlling for demographic variations (odds ratio: 3.05 [95% confidence interval: 2.1–4.4]). CONCLUSIONS: Local promotion of national guidelines by neonatologists coincided with a significant reduction in the percentage of infants born with birth weights less than 1500 g and at less than 32 weeks' gestation who were not delivered at subspecialty perinatal centers, and, at 88.2%, this nearly achieves the Healthy People 2010 objective to deliver 90% of infants born with very low birth weights in subspecialty perinatal centers.