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Spectrum Resource Efficient Medium Access Control (SRE-MAC) is proposed in this work to effectively and efficiently improve access to the communication channels of a WBAN system. Initially, Sensor nodes are collected from the human figure such as pulses, body temperature, and oxygen level. Utilize a multi-objective-based clustering algorithm to categorize sensor nodes based on a range of criteria, such as energy level, proximity to the central processing unit, similarity of physiological data, and QoS from the collected data. From it, the clustering-based K-Means Algorithm & Multi objective is presented. For choosing the best cluster heads, a Sparrow Guided Teaching Learning Optimization (SG-TLO) algorithm is used. Use the Contention Phase (CP) and variable size TDMA slot allotments of the SRE-MAC protocol to distribute spectrum resources among each cluster. Utilize the SG-TLO to identify the best spectrum allocation that balances energy consumption within each cluster, maximizes channel utilization, and reduces interference. After spectrum allocation and optimization, the Transmission Phase (TP) of the SRE-MAC protocol is used by the sensor nodes within each cluster to connect with the central processing unit. The nodes switch to sleep mode during periods of inactivity to save energy and transmit their health packets during their specific assigned time slots. Data from all clusters are acquired by the CPU, which also aggregates and analyses the data. Results of data analysis are used in a kind of context, including research, healing determination, and supervision of healthcare. Utilize performance metrics, such as network throughput, energy consumption, communication reliability, and interference levels, to assess the effectiveness of the clustering and spectrum allocation algorithms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper introduces a compact patch antenna with ladder-slot configuration designed for wearable applications. The antenna achieves miniaturization through the incorporation of partial ground and slots on the patch. Operating within the frequency range of 1.5 GHz (lower limit) to 3.8 GHz (upper limit), it covers the wireless body area network (WBAN) and the industrial, scientific, and medical (ISM) frequency bands. It's designed on an epoxy FR-4 substrate with a dielectric constant (&) of 4.4 and a thickness of 1.6 mm, the antenna resonates specifically at 2.4 GHz. This resonating frequency boasts an impressive impedance bandwidth of 2.3 GHz (equivalent to 86.80%), while maintaining a compact size of 0.42λ x 0.40λ mm². Notably, the antenna exhibits remarkable attributes such as high directivity, favorable cross-polarization levels, and efficiency at its resonating frequency. These features position it as a strong candidate for employment in both WBAN and ISM band Internet of Things (IoT) applications. This can be used in Mobile phones, Bluetooth devices, Wi-Fi Devices, wireless communication and Wearable applications. The antenna's small size, cost- effectiveness, omnidirectional radiation pattern, and reliable far-field characteristics make it a promising choice for wearable applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wearable technologies are increasingly popular, prompting a rise in wearable antenna usage, especially in wireless body area networks (WBAN). However, constructing antennas for wearable is challenging due to the presence of the human body. Factors such as flexibility, precision, and size are crucial considerations. Researchers are actively working on these challenges and have made significant progress in the field. This work presents a compact wideband (WB), low profile and low-cost antenna, which is suitable for wearable biomedical telemetry applications. The antenna is designed using FR4_epoxy dielectric material having dimensions of 0.44λ0 × 0.44λο × 0.028λ0 mm³. Two rectangular slots are engraved on the patch to improve the impedance bandwidth and gain. The proposed slotted wearable antenna achieved an impedance bandwidth of 2.26 GHz (3.58-5.84 GHz) with a center frequency at 5.3 GHz and high gain of 5.9 dBi. This antenna presents a solution for wearable biomedical telemetry, offering compact size, high performance, and adaptability to various conditions. The simulation results of return loss, voltage standing wave ratio (VSWR,), impedance matching, gain and radiation pattern of the proposed antenna are obtained through Ansys 2021 R2 high frequency structure simulator(HFSS) software. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The necessity for an advanced health monitoring system within healthcare systems has instigated the evolution of Wireless Body Area Networks (WBANs). It serves as a tool predominantly employed in diagnosing and addressing patient's health concerns through treatments. Securing highly confidential and sensitive patient data collected through sensors within WBANs is crucial, necessitating robust measures to prevent various forms of adversarial attacks and unauthorized access, mainly due to its critical role in healthcare applications. Hence, signcryption security is essential for ensuring the protection of medical information within WBANs. This research presents a novel perspective apart from existing investigations on signcryption, addressing a gap in the literature. The study thoroughly analyzes signcryption-based WBAN protocols to contribute valuable insights to the field. Recent signcryption literature has been assessedorganization, equipped with the master key to analyze WBAN architecture, security requirements, and critical challenges within WBANs to fulfill the outlined objectives. This review aims to perform a comparative analysis of existing signcryption security solutions and analyze the existing proposed security solutions for WBANs. The techniques were compared with the existing signcryption methods, aiming to comprehend the security issues and their underlying motives. Furthermore, it highlights the research challenges encountered in the security dimensions of signcryption in WBAN, establishing the foundation for future avenues of investigation in this rapidly developing sector of health monitoring technology. The survey aims to serve as a benchmark for researchers and application developers, offering reference points for further exploration in the field. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: Wireless body area network (WBAN) is a potential low‐cost technology for privacy‐sensitive telemedicine and e‐health monitoring and services. However, it faces limited protocol and physical resource support challenges, which can result in packet transfer difficulties. In particular, WBAN requires an emergency‐aware technology that ensures a promising quality of service (QoS). One significant issue affecting QoS and energy efficiency in WBAN is congestion. Effective congestion control techniques are essential for achieving proper load balancing. To address these challenges, we propose a congestion severity aware rate control (CSRR) algorithm that enhances packet transmission rate by reducing packet losses and retransmissions. The CSRR algorithm incorporates a fuzzy controller to predict congestion rates based on runtime metrics. To regulate congestion window growth in different algorithm phases, we introduce sequences such as the Fibonacci retracement sequence, knight's move sequence, and the binary logarithm of the Nth primorial sequence to regulate congestion window growth in the different phases of the proposed algorithm. We mathematically analyze the proposed CSRR algorithm using a Markov model. The simulation results demonstrate the superiority of our algorithm compared to existing approaches. Specifically, our algorithm achieves significant optimizations in terms of throughput (52.92%), packet loss (38.11%), delay (37.23%), and remaining energy (36.86%) when compared to existing algorithms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The backoff algorithm employed by the medium access control (MAC) protocol of the IEEE 802.15.4 standard has a significant impact on the overall performance of the wireless sensor network (WSN). This algorithm helps the MAC protocol resolve the contention among multiple nodes in accessing the wireless medium. The standard binary exponent backoff (BEB) used by the IEEE 802.15.4 MAC protocol relies on an incremental method that doubles the size of the contention window after the occurrence of a collision. In a previous work, we proposed the adaptive backoff algorithm (ABA), which adapts the contention window's size to the value of the probability of collision, thus relating the contention resolution to the size of the WSN in an indirect manner. ABA was studied and tested using contention window sizes of up to 256. However, the latter limit on the contention window size led to degradation in the network performance as the size of the network exceeded 50 nodes. This paper introduces the Improved ABA (I-ABA), an improved version of ABA. In the design of I-ABA we observe the optimal values of the contention window that maximize performance under varying probabilities of collision. Based on that, we use curve fitting techniques to derive a mathematical expression that better describes the adaptive change in the contention window. This forms the basis of I-ABA, which demonstrates scalability and the ability to enhance performance. As a potential area of application for I-ABA, we target wireless body area networks (WBANs) that are large-scale, that is, composed of hundreds of sensor nodes. WBAN is a major application area for the emerging Internet of Things (IoT) paradigm. We evaluate the performance of I-ABA based on simulations. Our results show that, in a large-scale WBAN, I-ABA can achieve superior performance to both ABA and the standard BEB in terms of various performance metrics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Research on wireless body area networks (WBAN), also known as wireless body sensor networks (WBSN), has been increasingly important in medical applications recently and is now crucial for patient monitoring. To create a dependable body area network (BAN) system, several factors need to be considered at both the software and hardware levels. One such factor is the designing and implementation of routing protocols in the network layers. Protocols for routing can detect and manage the routing paths in a network to facilitate efficient data transmission between nodes. Therefore, the routing protocol is crucial in wireless sensor networks (WSN) to provide dependable communication among the sensor nodes. Different clustering methods can be used in WBAN systems. However, these techniques often produce many cluster heads (CHs), which leads to higher energy consumption. Increased consumption of energy reduces the lifespan of WBANs and raises costs of monitoring. This research proposes a recent metaheuristic algorithm to select the optimal clusters to provide an energy-effective protocol for healthcare monitoring. This research aims to minimize the energy utilization of WBANs by choosing the most suitable CHs based on the BWO. The proposed BWO-based routing protocol demonstrates superior performance in WBANs based on energy consumption, packet loss, packet delivery ratio, network lifetime, end-to-end delay, and throughput. It optimizes energy consumption by effectively selecting CHs and routing paths, leading to balanced energy usage and prolonged network operation. The BWO model significantly reduces end-to-end delay by ensuring data packets follow the shortest and least congested routes, which is significant for real-time health monitoring. It achieves a high packet delivery ratio, typically between 95% and 98%, indicating reliable data transmission, while maintaining a low packet loss rate, generally between 1% and 5%. Additionally, the BWO-based routing protocol extends network lifetime by preventing early node depletion and enhances network throughput by reducing congestion and packet collisions, thereby supporting continuous and robust health data monitoring. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper presents an UWB antenna for on-body application with advancements in EBG backed reflector incorporating the compatibility and flexibility in structure. The ultra-wideband (UWB) frequency range supported by the designed antenna is between 2.78 GHz and 18 GHz. The antenna is designed with jeans textile substrate for the compatibility in on-body applications, which has appealing qualities such as flexibility and low dielectric properties, while the antenna radiator patch and ground plane are made of copper. The designed antenna is applicable on human body, meticulously designed EBG surface that could minimize antenna frequency detuning, with specific absorption rate (SAR). This allows for a great deal of flexibility in terms of the antenna design, allowing it to realize a high gain, enhanced bandwidth and directional radiation pattern. The antenna gain is increased by 99.8 % once EBG is applied and the SAR is decreased from 22.03 W/kg to 0.104 W/kg. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Today age of advancement one of the fastest growing fields of the technology is wearable electronics and device. In the recent advancement the wearable devices for on and off body communication is going expeditiously. For the wearable wireless communication, wearable antennas are mostly used due to its compact size, self powered, light weight, low profile, portable wireless communication and sensing. This paper throws light on wearable antennas for on body and off body communication including their applications, advantages and disadvantages. A comparative study is conducted on designing of different on body and off body wearable antennas and parameters of designed antenna such as their size, shape, gain, SAR have been compared and analyzed. In this paper also discussed the impact of the wearable antenna on human body and impact of human body on antenna.

Wireless Body Area Networks (WBANs) are wireless sensor networks that monitor the physiological and contextual data of the human body. Nodes in a WBAN communicate using short-range and low-power transmissions to minimize any impact on the human body's health and mobility. These transmissions thus become subject to failures caused by radiofrequency interference or body mobility. Additionally, WBAN applications typically have timing constraints and carry dynamic traffic, which can change depending on the physiological conditions of the human body. Several approaches for the Medium Access Control (MAC) sublayer have been proposed to improve the reliability and efficiency of the WBANs. This paper proposes and uses a systematic literature review (SLR) method to identify, classify, and statistically analyze the published works with MAC approaches for WBAN efficiency and reliability under dynamic network traffic, radiofrequency interference, and body mobility. In particular, we extend a traditional SLR method by adding a new step to select publications based on qualitative parameters. As a result, we identify the challenges and proposed solutions, highlight advantages and disadvantages, and suggest future works. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Seamless handoff is crucial for wireless body area network (WBAN) data's transmission, it may avoid the death resulted from sudden diseases, especially for the elder people who suffer from chronic diseases. Therefore, a vertical handoff algorithm that conforms to the characteristics of body area network is urgent. Different from the traditional service types in telecommunications, service types in wireless body area network have their own characteristics. How to reasonably divide these service types according to their requirement of the internet is very important. In addition, we need to study the rationality of different weighting and network selection algorithms for body area network users. In view of the lack of vertical handoff algorithms to meet the characteristics of wireless body area networks, this paper first analyzes the service types in body area network, and reasonably divides the service types in body area network into four types. For these four services types, we comprehensively and systematically analyze the weight determination and network selection algorithms suitable for them. In addition, in wireless body area network environment, there may be situations when multiple users need to transmit information at the same time. For these situations, we propose a broadcast mechanism to prevent network congestion caused by group switching. The simulation results show that the combination of using Analytic hierarchy process to determine the weight and using Technique for Order Preference by Similarity to Ideal Solution as the network selection method is most suitable for vertical handoff in WBAN. The proposed broadcast mechanism can solve the network congestion problem caused by group handoff. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The game's physical and physiological stakes are equal for all players. The two dimensions that rely on the power of physical and physiological consequences are the pursuer and the defence. Whether a chaser or defender, male or female, the physiological actions that occur during the physical activity will have a good effect on the body and on the personality. A Wireless Body Area Network (WBAN) is a network that may transmit real-time traffic like data, speech, and video to monitor the state of essential organs capabilities while remaining external to the body. The present research provides a clear evaluation of how different bones and muscles function, metabolism, movement regulation, and energy generation in relation to varying environmental conditions. There are physiological differences between a chaser and a defender. The primary goal is to gain an in-depth IoT based understanding of how several physiological variables, such as resting heart rate, maximum heart rate, aerobic capacity, and the regulation and maintenance of red blood cells and haemoglobin, are affected by skeletal muscle contraction. It was discovered based on artificial intelligence that the defenders with high speed agility and flexibility performed better in the pre-test. Physiological variables have a considerable impact on speed, strength, agility, and flexibility tests. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A dual-band, dual-mode button antenna is proposed for emerging fifth-generation (5G) networks and Industrial, Scientific, and Medical (ISM) communication systems, as it operates at 3.5 GHz and 5.8 GHz, respectively. At the lower band, a monopole-like omnidirectional radiation pattern is achieved by loading shorting pins on curved strips for on-body communication. At the higher band, broadside circularly polarized radiation is achieved by loading an asymmetric U-shaped slot in the central chamferd patch for off-body communication. By using Characteristic Modal Analysis (CMA), a clear physical insight into the formation of dual polarization is provided. The −10 dB impedance bandwidth ranges from 3.48 to 3.60 GHz and 5.65 to 6.03 GHz, respectively. The 3 dB axial ratio (AR) bandwidth ranges from 5.71 to 5.85 GHz in the high band. Additionally, the antenna achieves a peak gain of 1.2 dBi in on-body mode and 6.9 dBi in off-body mode. The maximum specific absorption rate (SAR) calculated on the body tissues is below the US/EU standard thresholds of 1.6 W/kg and 2 W/kg. The measured results indicate that the antenna experiences only slight impact from human body loading and structural deformations. Given its notable features, the proposed design is well suited for Wireless Body Area Network (WBAN) applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the medical field, a wearable body area network is a wireless network in which wearable sensors are implemented in or on patients' bodies to gather their sensitive health information and send it to the medical servers accordingly. These multi-functional sensors provide all users with optimized and convenient services, such as homecare monitoring of people's health conditions. Ensuring the privacy of users' information during its transfer between users and medical personnel necessitates a secure wireless environment. Mobility and insecure communication channels introduce a substantial threat from unauthorized entities, jeopardizing the privacy of the transferred information within this network. To mitigate this risk, researchers have proposed various authentication and key agreement schemes, aiming to enhance the safety of the communication channel and preserve user privacy. Additionally, the wearable body area network comprises resource-constrained devices, emphasizing the need for lightweight protocols to guarantee the transmitted information's authenticity, confidentiality, and integrity. Ankur Gupta and his colleagues recently proposed a mutual authentication and key agreement protocol and proved its security against well-known attacks. However, after in-depth analysis, we discovered that their proposed protocol is vulnerable to sensor node impersonation and sensor node capture attacks. In this paper, we propose a new lightweight mutual authentication and key agreement scheme in WBAN based on basic symmetric cryptosystems (Exclusive OR and Hash functions) to overcome the security weaknesses in Gupta's protocol and provide indispensable security for communicating data. Unlike Gupta's protocol, our proposed scheme is safe in the CK-adversary threat model. The security of the presented scheme is evaluated using BAN-Logic, the AVISPA tool, and the Real or Random (ROR) model. Overall, the performance comparison of the proposed protocol with the existing related protocols depicts that our new scheme is more efficient than others in terms of communication and computational complexities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The advent of Wireless Body Area Networks (WBAN) in patient care has revolutionized the healthcare sector as patients can now be monitored continuously in real-time and as well remotely. Despite its significant advantages, WBAN encounters a notable challenge in the fading aspect, which undermines its effectiveness. Improving WBAN efficiency involves tackling signal fading, which is crucial. Cooperative communication offers a promising solution by introducing spatial diversity to counteract fading effects. We propose a scheme that uses cooperative communication and the Probing-Go Back N Automatic Repeat Request (P-GBN ARQ) technique to reduce the fading effect. The proposed method uses feedback to predict the channel's current state, and the probing interval is determined by the received signal's Average Fading Duration (AFD). The proposed scheme's performance is also assessed extensively through simulations employing various metrics. The results demonstrate a considerable improvement in throughput performance with the inclusion of knowledge about channel fading. The Bit Error Rate (BER) execution is compared with Selection Combiner (SC) and conventional Maximal Ratio Combining (MRC). At 10−3, the cooperative method achieves it at 13 dB SNR, whereas the direct approach reaches it at 24 dB SNR, requiring an additional 11 dB. The proposed approach minimizes BER, enhancing throughput and reliability in WBAN.

In the realm of Wireless Body Area Networks (WBANs), cooperative communications emerge as a crucial research focus, lauded for their capacity to mitigate fading and optimize spectral efficiency. Choosing the appropriate relay in cooperative communication is vital for ensuring spatial diversity, as incorrect relay selections can lower the network's overall performance. This study utilizes an optimization method referred to as M-POA(Modified Pelican Optimization Algorithm) to tackle the relay selection problem. This paper introduces a M-POA specifically designed for cooperative networks in Wireless Body Area Networks (WBAN). The core concept behind the M-POA is to mimic the hunting behavior of pelicans in nature. Here, the relay selection is determined using the M-POA, with channel gain as a fitness function. The proposed strategy integrates the Decode-and-Forward (DF) relay protocol to significantly enhance communication efficiency and reliability. The proposed method is assessed in comparison with other relay selection techniques through a Bit Error Rate (BER) analysis, evaluating the effectiveness of each approach across different Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR) scenarios. The simulation results analysis elucidates that M-POA provides well-balanced performance in both exploration and exploitation aspects. By calculating the Bit Error Rate (BER), we assessed the effectiveness of the optimized relay selection strategy, with the objective of minimizing BER to enhance overall communication reliability. By studying the convergence curve, we evaluated the relay selection technique's performance and gauged how effectively it improved with each iteration. The proposed scheme effectively addresses both key requirements of WBAN: improving communication system reliability and optimizing relay selection.

Today age of advancement one of the fastest growing fields of the technology is wearable electronics and device. In the recent advancement the wearable devices for on and off body communication is going expeditiously. For the wearable wireless communication, wearable antennas are mostly used due to its compact size, self powered, light weight, low profile, portable wireless communication and sensing. This paper throws light on wearable antennas for on body and off body communication including their applications, advantages and disadvantages. A comparative study is conducted on designing of different on body and off body wearable antennas and parameters of designed antenna such as their size, shape, gain, SAR have been compared and analyzed. In this paper also discussed the impact of the wearable antenna on human body and impact of human body on antenna. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wireless body area networks (WBANs) have emerged as a promising solution for addressing challenges faced by elderly individuals, limited medical facilities, and various chronic medical conditions. WBANs consist of wearable sensing and computing devices interconnected through wireless communication channels, enabling the collection and transmission of vital physiological data. However, the energy constraints of the battery-powered sensor nodes in WBANs pose a significant challenge to ensuring long-term operational efficiency. Two-hop routing protocols have been suggested to extend the stability period and maximize the network's lifetime. These protocols select appropriate parent nodes or forwarders with a maximum of two hops to relay data from sensor nodes to the sink. While numerous energy-efficient routing solutions have been proposed for WBANs, reliability has often been overlooked. Our paper introduces an energy-efficient routing protocol called a Hybrid Clustering Approach for Extending WBAN Lifetime (HCEL) to address these limitations. HCEL leverages a utility function to select parent nodes based on residual energy (RE), proximity to the sink node, and the received signal strength indicator (RSSI). The parent node selection process also incorporates an energy threshold value and a constrained number of serving nodes. The main goal is to extend the overall lifetime of all nodes within the network. Through extensive simulations, the study shows that HCEL outperforms both Stable Increased Throughput Multihop Protocol for Link Efficiency (SIMPLE) and Energy-Efficient Reliable Routing Scheme (ERRS) protocols in several key performance metrics. The specific findings of our article highlight the superior performance of HCEL in terms of increased network stability, extended network lifetime, reduced energy consumption, improved data throughput, minimized delays, and improved link reliability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

High security solutions are highly important in wireless medical environments, since patient data is confidential, sensitive and must be transmitted over a secure connection. Accordingly, a hybrid encryption method is proposed to ensure data confidentiality (RSA-2048 for key exchange using ACL in SDN with the addition of AES-256-CTR and a hashed secret key for data encryption), and the encrypted data is stored in a private blockchain with the DBFT consensus algorithm to ensure the integrity of data before it being accessed by a doctor’s application which decrypts and displays the relevant information. The system was programmed using Python, in an NS3.37 simulator installed on Ubuntu with a MySQL database created using the Apache XAMPP. The product turned out to be a highly secure system for transmitting data from a medical sensor to the doctor’s application, offering a throughput of approximately 9 Gbps for both encryption and decryption tasks, while the processing time equaled 0.014 µs per a 128-bit block size for both encryption and decryption, with latency amounting to 0.14 s per 1 KB of data, and the blockchain agreement time equaling 4 ms per 1 KB. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wireless Body Area Networks (WBANs) are based on connected and dedicated sensor nodes for patient monitoring in the healthcare sector. The sensor nodes are implanted inside or outside the patient's body for sensing the vital signs and transmitting the sensed data to the end devices for decision-making. These sensor nodes use advanced communication technologies for data communication. However, they have limited capabilities in terms of computation power, battery life, storage, and memory, and these constraints make networks more vulnerable to security breaches and routing challenges. Important and sensitive information is exchanged over an unsecured channel in the network. Several devices are involved in handling the data in WBANs, including sink nodes, coordinator, or gateway nodes. Many cryptographic schemes have been introduced to ensure security in WBANs by using traditional confidentiality and key-sharing strategies. However, these techniques are not suitable for limited resource-based sensor nodes. In this paper, we propose a Lightweight Hybrid Cryptography Algorithm (LWHCA) that uses cryptographicbased techniques for WBAN networks to improve network security, minimize network overhead and delay issues, and improve the healthcare monitoring processes. The proposed solution is evaluated in a simulation scenario and compared with state-of-the-art schemes in terms of energy consumption, and ciphertext size. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Internet of Body (IoB), a subset of wireless sensor networks, has emerged as a promising technology in the biomedical field. The applications of the IoB, particularly in healthcare and medical applications, have attracted significant attention in recent years. The IoB, also known as a Wireless Body Area Network (WBAN), consists of small sensors placed on the human body, which can collect physiological data and facilitate remote operations such as processing, treatment, assessment and decision-making via the Internet network. This paper presents detailed theoretical and experimental studies on the design of sensors for a 5G-based IoB healthcare monitoring network. The need for efficient and high-performance sensors, in the healthcare industry for enabling continuous monitoring of patient’s health in real-time, is highlighted along this work. In this paper, we propose a novel approach for designing and analyzing the performance of IoB antenna sensors, specifically focusing on channel modeling and power-consumption between wearable wireless sensors. The behavior of the sensors on the human body is studied both theoretically and experimentally for two optimal locations: on the human body waist and on human arm-hand. The results are compared to assess the accuracy of the theoretical model. Despite the complexity of the physiological behavior of the human body, our findings show a good agreement between the theoretical and experimental results. This work provides valuable insights into the design and optimization of IoB/WBANs for real-world medical applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A flexible Super Wide Band (SWB) antenna with a frequency selective surface (FSS) reflector is presented to reduce the specific absorption rate (SAR) and to improve the gain of the proposed antenna for Wireless Body Area Network (WBAN) Applications. A tapered feed circular monopole antenna with arrowhead-shaped slot structure is designed on Jeans substrate with a compact physical dimension of 22 × 28 × 0.3 mm3. The use of a Jeans substrate makes the proposed antenna thin and highly flexible. The impedance bandwidth of the proposed antenna is 28 GHz (3.2–31.2 GHz) with a peak gain of 5.61 dBi. Since the antenna is intended for body wearable applications, its performance has been observed by placing the antenna near a human body phantom. This placement increased the SAR and reduced the gain. Further to reduce the SAR and to enhance the gain of the proposed SWB antenna a novel FSS reflector, which consists of a 2 × 2 array of elements, is located at a distance of 1.138 λ (13 mm) below the proposed antenna. In order to reduce the SAR, the FSS array structure is placed between the antenna and the human’s forearm. This placement reduced the specific absorption rate (SAR) by more than 95%. To make the proposed antenna with FSS structure user agreeable, the gap between the antenna and FSS is filled by polyethylene foam, with a dielectric constant of 2.26, a loss tangent of 0.00031, and a density of 2.2 lb. Further, there is also a 3–4 dBi improvement in antenna gain after the application of the FSS. The proposed antenna has great potential to be applied in human microwave imaging due to its immense wide bandwidth, high gain and compact size, and low SAR value. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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In the Internet of Things (IoT) healthcare sector, the wireless body area network (WBAN) is being used to optimize medical results by tracking and treating patients as they go about their daily lives. Health insurance has also been one of the cybercriminal's main goals. The Systematic Review of IoT Healthcare systems particularly wireless body area networks is significant, to reach the benefits and challenges faced by existing methods in the domain. This study provides a systematic survey of WBAN data protection. Various types of devices are used in medical science to detect and diagnose diseases. The network is an integral part of medical science in today's era. In medical sciences, sensors take data from a problematic place like cancerous cells. This research discussed a lot of techniques in the literature review. Most of them are not able to fulfill the requirements. If an unauthorized person reaches the data that can be a severe issue, like the diagnosed disease was blood cancer, and after unauthorized access manipulation can change even the diagnosed issue in the database. A doctor can prescribe the medication based on provided data that has been manipulated by unauthorized persons. Several existing schemes are explored in the literature to determine how the protection of sharing patients' healthcare data can be improved. The systematic literature review (SLR) of multiple security schemes for WBAN is presented in this survey paper.

A miniaturized, multi-band, four-port wearable Multiple Input Multiple Output (MIMO) antenna is proposed, which contains a leaky wave textile antenna (LWTA) on denim (εr = 1.6, tanδ = 0.006) as substrate and Shieldit Super Fabric as conductor textile. The concept in this work involves incorporating the metal and plastic zipper into the garment to function as an antenna worn on the body. Simulations and measurements have been conducted to explore this idea. The LWTA has dimensions of 40 × 30 × 1 mm³. Every two ports are separated by a zipper with two different kinds of materials: Acetal Polymer Plastic (APP) and 90 % brass to improve the isolation, gain, and Impedance bandwidth. The antenna operates in the frequency ranges covering the L, C, S, and X bands. Additionally, diversity performance is evaluated using the Envelope Correlation Coefficient (ECC) and diversity gain (DG). Simulation and measurement findings agree well, with a maximum gain of 12.15 dBi, low Specific Absorption Rate (SAR) based on the standards, DG greater than 9.65 dB, circular polarization (CP), and strong isolation (

Abstract Blockchain technologies (BCT) are utilized in healthcare to facilitate a smart and secure transmission of patient data. BCT solutions, however, are unable to store data produced by IoT devices in smart healthcare applications because these applications need a quick consensus process, meticulous key management, and enhanced eprivacy standards. In this work, a smart and secure eHealth framework SSEHCET (Smart and Secure EHealth Framework using Cutting-edge Technologies) is proposed that leverages the potentials of modern cutting-edge technologies (IoT, 5G, mobile edge computing, and BCT), which comprises six layers: 1) The sensing layer-WBAN consists of medical sensors that normally are on or within the bodies of patients and communicate data to smartphones. 2) The edge layer consists of elements that are near IoT devices to collect data. 3) The Communication layer leverages the potential of 5G technology to transmit patients' data between multiple layers efficiently. 4) The storage layer consists of cloud servers or other powerful computers. 5) Security layer, which uses BCT to transmit and store patients' data securely. 6) The healthcare community layer includes healthcare professionals and institutions. For the processing of medical data and to guarantee dependable, safe, and private communication, a Smart Agent (SA) program was duplicated on all layers. The SA leverages the potential of BCT to protect patients' privacy when outsourcing data. The contribution is substantiated through a meticulous evaluation, encompassing security, ease of use, user satisfaction, and SSEHCET structure. Results from an in-depth case study with a prominent healthcare provider underscore SSEHCET's exceptional performance, showcasing its pivotal role in advancing the security, usability, and user satisfaction paradigm in modern eHealth landscapes.

In this work, a dual-band, compact, eight-mode substrate-integrated waveguide (EMSIW) antenna is presented for 2.4 GHz and 5.8 GHz Wireless Body Area Networks (WBANs) applications. The electrical size of the proposed antenna is reduced by 1/8th compared to a conventional rectangular SIW cavity resonator by using the EMSIW approach. With the eight-mode concept, the dominant mode is preserved at the same frequency while achieving a large reduction in antenna size. The dominant mode’s resonance frequency is independently adjusted to 2.4 GHz, and a higher-order mode operates at 5.8 GHz. When both slots are loaded in an EMSIW, the radiation pattern at 5.8 GHz is enhanced in the broadside direction.The antenna’s on-body performance is validated using a biological phantom model at 2.4 GHz and 5.8 GHz, demonstrating lower sensitivity. The antenna’s simulated efficiency and measured gain in free space are 5.9 dBi and 60% and 3.8 dBi and 60%, respectively. The simulated Specific Absorption Rate (SAR) values are within acceptable limits for on-body WBAN applications, attributed to the predominantly unidirectional radiation from the antenna resulting in low SAR values. Additionally, the measurement results align well with the simulation outcomes.

Wireless Body Area Networks (WBANs) have significantly enhanced various aspects of human life, particularly in healthcare, fitness, entertainment, sports, and etc. In WBANs, the sensor nodes are placed in and around the body along with the sink node, which collects the physiological data from these sensors and forwards it for further processing. The placement of the sink node is one of the critical aspects in the design of WABNs as it affects both the energy efficiency and connectivity. To this end, this paper introduces a hybrid method called Distance and Angulation based AGglomerative Clustering (DAAG). DAAG, initially clusters the WBAN sensors using Distance and Angulation based k-Mean clustering. Afterward, Agglomerative Clustering is applied to determine the optimal placement of the sink node. The results of DAAG are compared with various machine learning and optimization approaches, including D-RMS (Distance based Random mean shift clustering), Reinforcement Q-Learning Approach (QL), Humpback Whale optimization (HWOA), Multi-Angulation (MA) and Closeness Centrality (CC). Given an initial energy, the results show that the DAAG exhibits superior performance in terms of latency, packet error rate (PER), and energy consumption. DAAG shows an energy consumption of only 1.51% outperforming QL, HWOA, MA, CC, and D-RMS along with an improved localization accuracy of 0.36 m.

This study introduces an innovative and compact wearable Long-Range (LoRa) patch antenna developed for monitoring vital signs, with a focus on heart rate and body temperature, in medical applications of Wireless Body Area Networks (WBAN). The antenna functions within the 868 MHz and 915 MHz LoRa bands, filling a notable gap in current literature regarding compact, wearable antennas operating below 1 GHz. Fabricated on a Rogers Duroid RO3003 substrate, the antenna incorporates a U-slot on a conventional rectangular patch, a matching stub, and a partial ground plane to enhance impedance matching and performance efficiency. Furthermore, the antenna displays a bidirectional radiation pattern in the E-plane and an omnidirectional pattern in the H-plane at both frequencies, achieving a peak gain of 2.12 dBi and a radiation efficiency of 99.8% at 868 MHz. The antenna, measuring $80 \times 60 \text {mm}^{2}$ ( $0.23~\lambda _{0} \times 0.17~\lambda _{0}$ ), was designed, simulated, and optimized using CST Microwave Studio (MWS) software. The performance under bending conditions was also assessed, revealing a bending an excellent efficiency with minimal impact on bandwidth and gain. Specific Absorption Rate (SAR) analysis indicated that all values were within the safety limits set by FCC and ICNIRP standards. Supervised regression machine learning models, specifically the ensemble regression model, were employed to predict resonance frequencies based on various antenna parameters, resulting in an R-squared score of 87.68%. This approach significantly reduced the computational time required for full-wave simulations, streamlining the design process. Real-world experimental validation involved open-field testing of the fabricated prototype for WBAN LoRa applications. The performance, evaluated on a LoRa transceiver system utilizing the LoRa SX1276, demonstrated the superior capabilities of the proposed antenna in heart rate and temperature monitoring, with an average RSSI improvement of -5 dBm at various points within a range of up to 1 km. This confirmed its improved signal transmission and reception capabilities in vital sign monitoring. The proposed antenna shows strong performance metrics and significant potential for WBAN in long-range applications, as evidenced by thorough experimental validations.

This manuscript demonstrates a comprehensive analysis of a low-profile dual-band flexible omnidirectional wearable antenna, designed for Wireless Body Area Network (WBAN) applications. The proposed antenna is designed and fabricated on a commercially available semiflexible RT/duroid 5870 substrate. The antenna prototype is composed of a circular radiating patch with a star-shaped slot at the center, providing dual-band operations that resonates at the 2.45 GHz ISM band and 5.2 GHz WLAN band. Meanwhile, two truncated arc-shaped slots at the top and bottom edges of the radiating patch and the partial ground were utilized to improve the reflection coefficients (S11) and impedance bandwidth of the antenna. The proposed antenna has a compact footprint of $47\times 30\times 0.787$ mm3 ( $0.38~\lambda \text{o} \times 0.25~\lambda \text{o} \times 0.006~\lambda \text{o}$ at 2.45 GHz), with measured impedance bandwidth of 48% and 38.5% at 2.45 GHz and 5.2 GHz respectively. Moreover, the designed antenna has an omnidirectional and bidirectional radiation feature with the estimated gain of 2.5 dBi, 4.63 dBi and numerical efficiencies of 98.5% and 95% at 2.45 GHz and 5.2 GHz respectively. Furthermore, a comprehensive investigation encompassing a specific absorption rate and an exploration of bending aspects validated the effectiveness of the suggested design in adhering the SAR threshold and its remarkable robustness, when confronted with the demands imposed by human body loading and structural deformations. Consequently, both the numerical and measured results strongly endorse the significance of the suggested design for lightweight, body-worn wearable devices within the Wireless Body Area Network applications.

Blockchain technologies (BCT) are utilized in healthcare to facilitate a smart and secure transmission of patient data. BCT solutions, however, are unable to store data produced by IoT devices in smart healthcare applications because these applications need a quick consensus process, meticulous key management, and enhanced eprivacy standards. In this work, a smart and secure eHealth framework SSEHCET (Smart and Secure EHealth Framework using Cutting-edge Technologies) is proposed that leverages the potentials of modern cutting-edge technologies (IoT, 5G, mobile edge computing, and BCT), which comprises six layers: 1) The sensing layer-WBAN consists of medical sensors that normally are on or within the bodies of patients and communicate data to smartphones. 2) The edge layer consists of elements that are near IoT devices to collect data. 3) The Communication layer leverages the potential of 5G technology to transmit patients' data between multiple layers efficiently. 4) The storage layer consists of cloud servers or other powerful computers. 5) Security layer, which uses BCT to transmit and store patients' data securely. 6) The healthcare community layer includes healthcare professionals and institutions. For the processing of medical data and to guarantee dependable, safe, and private communication, a Smart Agent (SA) program was duplicated on all layers. The SA leverages the potential of BCT to protect patients' privacy when outsourcing data. The contribution is substantiated through a meticulous evaluation, encompassing security, ease of use, user satisfaction, and SSEHCET structure. Results from an in-depth case study with a prominent healthcare provider underscore SSEHCET's exceptional performance, showcasing its pivotal role in advancing the security, usability, and user satisfaction paradigm in modern eHealth landscapes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The design of the aperture-fed annular ring (AFAR) microstrip antenna is presented. This proposed design will ease the fabrication and usability of the 3D-printed and solderless 2D materials. This antenna consists of three layers: the patch, the slot within the ground plane as the power transfer medium, and the microstrip line as the feeding. The parameters of the proposed design are investigated using the finite element method FEM to achieve the 50 Ω impedance with the maximum front-to-back ratio of the radiation pattern. This study was performed based on four steps, each investigating one parameter at a time. These parameters were evaluated based on an initial design and prototype. The optimized design of 3D AFAR attained S11 around 17 dB with a front-to-back ratio of more than 30 dB and a gain of around 3.3 dBi. This design eases the process of using a manufacturing process that involves 3D-printed and 2D metallic materials for antenna applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Telemedicine system can track the vital signs of patients with chronic disease and electronically transmits the data to healthcare providers without waiting for an emergency to occur. This helps in providing an alert system that assists physicians to diagnose problems and get treatment to patients in a proactive manner. In general, rural patients are unable to reach multispecialty expert doctors for diagnosis and treatment of chronic diseases. Even though there have been numerous studies on remote telemedicine since the early days, some of them have flaws, such as the fact that some are not technology-focused or that some simply presented their work without any practical application. We reasoned that if we could develop a better solution for distant telemedicine, it would enable a great number of patients to receive virtual medical treatment as a result of the current pandemic. In this article, we explore the most recent technological paradigms and cutting-edge research in the newest technologies that are essential to the development of remote telemedicine and supported living in the future. First, a brief discussion of the benefits of remote telemedicine is presented. The most critical technology advancements and concepts for remote telemedicine and assisted living are then highlighted. From this point forward, a thorough analysis of the current state of technology, its potential problems, and prospective remedies is done. Finally, we supplied a tool for remote telemedicine via our newly built system called IoT remote diagnosis and therapeutic telemedicine system, which allows patients to receive virtual treatment 24 × 7. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wireless body area networks (WBANs) play a pivotal role in monitoring body movements and collecting crucial health metrics such as blood pressure, heart rate, oxygen levels, and physiological conditions. These health parameters are acquired through sensor clusters strategically deployed on the human body and subsequently transmitted to fog or cloud layers for essential decision-making processes. This research study commences by enhancing energy efficiency within WBANs through the introduction of an innovative weight-based algorithm known as the weight-based next neighbor selection algorithm (WBNN). WBNN assigns specific weights to each route connecting pairs of sensors by considering the distance between them. A small weight implies a small distance, while a high value of weight implies a high distance. The total weight of each route is then computed. During the forwarding mechanism, sensor nodes opt for routes with the smallest weight, signifying reduced energy consumption. Secondly, it provides insights into various clustering schemes and routing algorithms employed for data exchange among different sensors and network layers. Lastly, the suggested algorithm is compared with the latest routing algorithms on the basis of four parameters, i.e., network utilization, number of dead nodes, throughput and energy consumption. The results show that the described protocol surpasses traditional routing protocols by achieving superior outcomes, including a 6% reduction in energy consumption, a 72% increase in throughput, and a 68% decrease in number of dead nodes. These findings underscore the potential of the proposed protocol to significantly enhance the efficiency and effectiveness of WBANs in the domain of smart healthcare applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recently, Wireless Body Area Networks (WBANs) have emerged as a significant breakthrough in the healthcare sector due to their immense potential to revolutionize health outcomes. This type of network is able to support a diverse range of applications with traffic rates ranging from several bits per hour up to 10 megabits per second. The challenge lies in accommodating this wide range of applications and meeting their distinct requirements using a single suitably flexible medium access control protocol. In response to this challenge, our paper proposes a novel Traffic Adaptive MAC protocol designed specifically for the regular traffic of WBANs. This innovative protocol dynamically adapts its operation based on the observed traffic, leading to significant efficiency gains compared to the standardized MAC protocols IEEE 802.15.4 and IEEE 802.15.6. Our contribution aims to address the critical need for a tailored and adaptive MAC protocol that can seamlessly handle varying traffic loads within WBANs. By incorporating our protocol, we envision enhanced communication efficiency and improved performance, unlocking new possibilities for healthcare applications and ultimately revolutionizing the healthcare industry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A wireless body area network (WBAN) connects separate sensors in many places of the human body, such as clothes, under the skin. WBAN can be used in many domains such as health care, sports, and control system. In this paper, a scheme focused on managing a patient’s health care is presented based on building a WBAN that consists of three components, biometric sensors, mobile applications related to the patient, and a remote server. An excellent scheme is proposed for the patient’s device, such as a mobile phone or a smartwatch, which can classify the signal coming from a biometric sensor into two types, normal and abnormal. In an abnormal signal, the device can carry out appropriate activities for the patient without requiring a doctor as a first case. The patient does not respond to the warning message in a critical case sometimes, and the personal device sends an alert to the patient’s family, including his/her location. The proposed scheme can preserve the privacy of the sensitive data of the patient in a protected way and can support several security features such as mutual authentication, key management, anonymous password, and resistance to malicious attacks. These features have been proven depending on the Automated Validation of Internet Security Protocols and Applications. Moreover, the computation and communication costs are efficient compared with other related schemes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]