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The research reviewed in this report suggests that some of the contentions about schools, districts, and communities in rural areas are mistaken. Many of the issues they face also confront urban and suburban educators, and rural communities offer several distinctive educational advantages. A lack of student motivation to learn is a problem often cited by rural educators. This problem seems to be a widespread problem in most of the nation's schools--rural, urban, and suburban. This report gives special attention to student motivation to learn, along with other contributing factors to student outcomes in rural schools. Rural educators often attest to a dampening effect on student aspirations where families do not see education as an essential vehicle to advancement in life, and the improved life chances an education provides require a relocation away from a shrinking rural community. When the remoteness of a rural community is a barrier in attracting and retaining school leaders and teachers, the school's internal systems for ensuring consistent application of effective practice is paramount. The policies, programs, procedures, and practices must be engrained in the daily operations of the school in ways that optimize the productivity of current staff and readily assimilate new staff. With this in mind, this report recommends actions that drive student learning in any school setting and are necessary and achievable in rural schools. The recommendations in this report build upon the advantages of rural settings and address their perceived disadvantages.

In an era of financial stringency and demands for better school performance, it is useful to think about several means of raising school productivity: (1) increase learning effectiveness without increasing costs; (2) reduce costs without diminishing effectiveness; or (3) both, that is, increase effectiveness and simultaneously reduce costs. The purpose of this document is to concisely summarize research on how learning productivity can best be increased by all three means. It is aimed to serve responsible officials in schools, districts, and states. Though the present document emphasizes new research on "learning more, spending less," much past research on effective methods is described in greater detail in a related book from the Center on Innovation & Improvement (CII), "Improving Student Learning: Action Principles for Families, Classrooms, Schools, Districts, and States" (Walberg 2011), which emphasizes rigorous, statistically controlled, contrast-group research. Intended for busy educators and policy makers, this document is an overview of actionable productivity innovations. Compared to the huge underlying research literature, this document is purposely concise but refers to and serves as an index to many of CII's resources responding to the needs of states and school districts. These provide further explanations, references to research, and examples in practice. New in this document are Transformational Innovations. Several are less well researched than those previously summarized by CII, but in the current era of budgetary stringency, are increasingly put forward by policy analysts and legislators as having considerable potential to meet the productivity challenge. This document also invites state, district, and school officials to contribute examples of policies and practices they have successfully employed. The following are appended: (1) Achieving More, Spending Less--Innovation for Productivity Survey; (2) Time Influences and School-Level Influences on Student Learning; and (3) Database of Resources. [For "Improving Student Learning: Action Principles for Families, Classrooms, Schools, Districts, and States" (Walberg 2011), see ED573685.]

Extensive statistical analyses were made of annual achievement progress on North Carolina's Department of Public Instruction tests. The data included 1,592 students in six Core Knowledge schools and 533,919 students in more than 1,300 other schools. The analyses showed that Core Knowledge schools excelled the other schools in achievement progress in eight of ten comparisons of reading and mathematics in the five grade levels available for analysis. This report adds the data for the other schools in North Carolina but employs the same sample of Core Knowledge schools and the same tests and demographic indicators as analyzed in the previous report. So that this report can be read independently in the absence of the previous report, the information about the sample and tests are included.

The purpose of this report is to synthesize (a) meta-analyses of control-group research and (b) econometric analyses of large-scale surveys, both of which reveal the causes of achievement. (Author)

To assist educators in fostering resilience among children, this paper offers information that will help transform the picture of children at risk to a vision of educationally resilient students who can overcome obstacles. Researchers have offered many definitions of resilience, but all have stressed the capacity of the individual to overcome personal vulnerabilities and environmental adversities. Two of the most salient characteristics of resilient children are a high level of engagement and a sense of personal agency. Just as some personality traits act as protective factors, so do some features of families, communities, and schools. This booklet explores these features, beginning with parent characteristics that foster resilience. After the family, peers are the most important source of support, providing children and adolescents with a sense of being cared for and valued. Communities with well-developed social networks and consistent social and cultural norms also support resilience. Schools have a major role to play in promoting resilience, and a number of strategies to do so are discussed. Teacher attitudes and expectations are critical, and these must be combined with powerful, research-based instructional practices that facilitate student learning. Responding to student diversity promotes resilience, as does teaching students strategies for learning. The roles of curriculum, programs and reforms that build resilience, and initiatives with a direct influence on student learning are discussed. Children's educational resilience cannot be created merely by a set of activities or strategies, but it can be enhanced by teachers' adopting a new vision of their students as individuals who can make choices, acquire knowledge and skills, and achieve a fulfilling life. (Contains 1 figure, 2 tables, and 19 references.) (SLD)

A knowledge base on influences on student learning is emerging from a study that analyzed the contents of 179 handbook chapters and reviews, compiled 91 research syntheses, and surveyed 61 educational researchers. This analysis presents results of the research by using a 28-category conceptual framework based on models of schooling that influenced learning. To better indicate the influences that were important, the 28 categories are grouped into 6 broad types of influences: (1) student characteristics; (2) classroom instruction and climate; (3) home, peer, and community context; (4) program design; (5) school organization; and (6) state and district characteristics. All 28 categories are listed, and an average score is been derived for each to indicate its importance. In general, direct influences were found to have a greater impact on learning than indirect influences. Direct influences include such things as the amount of time a teacher spends on a topic and the quality of the interactions teachers have with students. Indirect influences included policies adopted by a school, district, or state, and organizational features such as site-based management. (SLD)

The study examines the defining features of school improvement programs. Twelve research-based programs that have been implemented for 5 or more years in at least 50 schools or for 3,000 students were analyzed. All have achieved national visibility. Eight of the programs focused on curricular reform and topics included: (1) Core Knowledge; (2) Different Ways of Knowing; (3) Foxfire; (4) Higher Order Thinking Skills; (5) the National Writing Project; (6) Paideia; (7) Reading Recovery; and (8) Success for All. The other four programs (Accelerated Schools, the Coalition of Essential Schools, Community for Learning, and School Development) were comprehensive models focusing on improving student learning in all subject areas. The programs are distinctive, but share the intention to increase learning through research-based practices. Researchers identified 54 practices among the 12 programs, and considered 26 practices strongly research-based. The programs have a variety of pre-implementation preparations and implementation requirements, and they vary in the amount of time and costs required for implementation. There is a great deal of information about many aspects of these programs, but there is a relative lack of information about their effects on achievement. (Contains 3 tables and 15 references.) (SLD)

This paper provides an overview of the research base on fostering educational resilience among children whose circumstances place them at risk of educational failure-- particularly in inner-city communities. The purpose of this paper is twofold: (1) to provide an overview of the research base on fostering educational resilience among children whose circumstances place them at risk of educational failure and (2) to describe educational practices that are resilience-promoting and their implications for student development and learning success. A previous research synthesis (M. Wang, G. Haertel, and H. Walberg, 1994) identified 7 characteristics of the learner and 22 characteristics of the home, classroom, and community contexts that influence student learning. The research base of studies on each of these context categories is discussed. Findings from a long-term program of research on resilience development at the National Center on Education in the Inner Cities, a program that encompasses a range of studies, show characteristics of resilient learners and characteristics of inner-city classrooms that promote educational resilience. Enabling conditions that result in high levels of student engagement include an orderly and safe campus, student-centered and highly responsive classroom learning environments with well-structured classroom management systems, site-specific and ongoing professional development, and parents with high educational aspirations for their children. Findings from a recent meta-analysis support inclusive practices for children with special needs. The restructuring of curriculum and service delivery, combined with the creation of inclusive, stable, supportive learning environments, and increased access to family, school, and community resources can promote the healthy development and learning success of students at risk of school failure. (Contains 1 table, 1 figure, and 35 references.) (SLD)

This chapter concentrates on policies that increase the efficiency of schools rather than just more spending. The first focus is on the causes of educational inefficiency. These include lack of standards and accountability, centralization, unaccountable management and labor, federally induced inefficiency, and nonmarket inefficiency. Steps policymakers can take to increase productivity are: (1) focus schools on learning; (2) apply principles of effective instruction; (3) increase the amount of instruction; (4) ensure quality instruction; (5) improve the organization of work and instruction; (6) employ uniform standards; (7) allow for student differences; (8) work to overcome "Matthew effects" of increasing ability differences; (9) group students in appropriate ways; (10) develop external examinations; (11) hold educators accountable; (12) incorporate appropriate incentives; and (13) abolish or voucherize federal education programs. Particular attention is given to the role of privatization, which might better satisfy educational requirements for all but the special interests of public school providers and defenders of the status quo. The evidence for the superior achievement of private schools suggests enlarging their numbers with publicly subsidized vouchers. (Contains three figures.) (SLD)

This paper provides an overview of the research base on the influence of schools, families, and communities on the learning and educational resilience of children in at-risk circumstances, as well as illustrations of current policies and programmatic approaches that place health development and educational success as integral components of community revitalization. Implications for policy and practice are also discussed. Several policy and practical implications can be drawn from current attempts to institute broad-based efforts to improve the development and learning success of inner-city children and youth. First, program implementation must be a shared responsibility of all stakeholder groups at the grassroots level. Schools, however, must be the primary focus in attempting to improve urban education. Second, innovative programs evolve in stages of development, growth, and change. Programs that are useful in one city may be helpful in initiating similar programs elsewhere. Finally, it is noted that few educational reforms have generated the same level of support as the comprehensive approach to coordinated educational and related services for children as a focus for achieving significant improvements in student learning. More information is needed about program features, implementation, and evidence of effects. Educational reform and the reform of services delivery have been on somewhat separate tracks, but to ensure the long-lasting impact of collaborative programs, schools and other collaborating agencies must be committed to using powerful instructional techniques as an essential and active component. (Contains 4 tables, 1 figure, and 56 references.) (SLD)

This fastback reference analyzes contrasting opinions about educational assessment and testing in the light of available evidence. The reform of student assessment is an essential component of the revitalization of American schools. Accountability issues relate to the proliferation of testing and the increasing use of high-stakes tests for policy decisions. A new focus on cognitive psychology has stimulated innovations in assessment practices. While cognitivists may attempt to go beyond behaviorally developed tests, they have yet to produce convincing and practical methods that can be easily used in classrooms. Technological developments are making tests easier to develop, administer, and score, but critical economic and technological barriers must be overcome before technology fulfills its promise in assessment. As the adequacy of current assessments is considered, three areas of debate arise: purposes of assessment, standards of technical quality, and cost. These considerations are equally important in the development of alternative assessments. Alternative assessments promise a great deal yet require sober evaluation. One figure illustrates a developed test item. (Contains 25 references.) (SLD)

The United States ranks first in the world among major industrialized nations in school costs and ranks nearly last in student achievement. Three massive changes in state educational policies during the last half century may account for this low educational productivity. From 1940 to 1990: (1) the number of U.S. school districts decreased 87 percent (from 117,108 to 15,367), while average district enrollment increased over 10 times from 217 students to 2,637; (2) the number of public schools decreased 69 percent (from approximately 200,000 to 62,037), while average enrollment increased over 4 times from 127 students to 653; and (3) the percentage of school revenues from state funding increased from 30 to 48 percent, now exceeding local revenues. Data from the National Assessment of Educational Progress and federal reports were analyzed for 37 states and the District of Columbia. Average state scores for grade 8 mathematics proficiency were significantly and negatively related to average school size, average district size, and percentage of educational funding (excluding federal funds) paid by the state. This finding is supported by a literature review covering research on economies and "diseconomies" of scale, the relationship of organizational size to efficiency and productivity, the growth of state educational bureaucracies, the influence of school size on educational outcomes, and the effects of "remote" educational funding on local control and accountability. (SV)

The National Follow Through Program is a federally funded initiative to improve the quality of educational services for students from economically disadvantaged backgrounds. This report discusses the implementation and outcomes of the program. In the first part of the paper, a history of the program is provided and the diversity of educational approaches in Follow Through's model programs, the gains in basic skills demonstrated by Follow Through students, and the dissemination of Follow Through's model programs are discussed. The second part considers three components of the Follow Through program. These are: (1) a holistic approach to instruction; (2) the development and use of research-based instructional programs and practices; and (3) effective educational delivery systems that stress sponsorship of local projects, staff development, and implementation of parent involvement activities. The third part, a conclusion, finds that the Follow Through program is clearly an important source of knowledge waiting to be tapped, and that its most important message may be that there is a critical need to forge a two-directional exchange, indicating the need for a link between research and schooling practice. Follow through has also identified ways of dealing with the evaluation of school improvement efforts, and corroborated findings in the literature on effective teaching and school effectiveness. A reference list of 62 items is included. An appendix lists overall goals and major design features of some widely implemented Follow Through model programs. (BC)

Data from the National Assessment of Educational Progress mathematics assessment for within-state samples of eighth graders suggest that achievement is inversely related to school and district size indexes and to state-funding share. Higher achieving states have smaller schools and districts and smaller state shares of school expenditures. (SLD)